Refine
Document Type
- Doctoral thesis (4)
Has Fulltext
- yes (4)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (4)
Keywords
- Photovoltaics (4) (remove)
Institute
The chemical and electronic structure of hybrid organometallic (CH₃NH₃PbI₍₃₋ₓ₎Clₓ) and inorganic (CsSnBr₃) perovskite materials on compact TiO₂ (c-TiO₂) is studied using x-ray and electron based spectroscopic techniques. The morphology and local elemental composition of CH₃NH₃PbI₍₃₋ₓ₎Clₓ, used as absorbers in PV devices, defining the film quality and influencing the performance of respective solar cells is studied in detail by using photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM). An incomplete coverage, with holes reaching down to the c-TiO₂ was revealed; three different topological regions with different degrees of coverage and chemical composition were identified. Depending on the degree of coverage a variation in I oxidation and the formation of Pb⁰ in the vicinity of the c-TiO₂ is found. The valence band maxima (VBM) derived from experimental data for the perovskite and c-TiO₂, combined with information from literature on spiro-MeOTAD suggests an energy level alignment resulting in an excellent charge selectivity at the absorber/spiro-MeOTAD and absorber/c-TiO₂ interfaces respectively. Further, the derived energy level alignment indicates a large recombination barrier (~2 eV), preventing shunts due to direct contact between c-TiO₂ and spiro-MeOTAD in the pin-holes.
In-situ ambient pressure hard x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (AP-HAXPES) studies of 60 and 300 nm CH₃NH₃PbI₍₃₋ₓ₎Clₓ have been performed under varies conditions (i.e. vacuum/water and dark/UV light) to gain insight into the degradation mechanism responsible for the short lifetime of the absorber. The 60 nm perovskite forms Pb⁰ in water vapor (non-defined illumination) in presence of x-rays. The 300 nm perovskite sample shows a complex behavior under illumination/dark. In water vapor/dark the perovskite dissolves into its organic (MAI) and inorganic (PbI₂) components. Under illumination PbI₂ further decomposes to Pb⁰ induced by UV light and x-rays.
For alternative inorganic CsSnBr₃ perovskites, the impact of SnF₂ on the chemical and electronic structure is studied to identify its role for the improved performance of the solar cell. HAXPES and lab-XPS measurements performed on CsSnBr₃ with and without SnF₂ indicate two Sn, Cs, and Br species in all samples, where the second Sn species is attributed to oxidized Sn (Sn⁴⁺). When adding SnF₂ to the precursor solution, the coverage is improved and less Sn⁴⁺ and Cs and Br secondary species can be observed, revealing an oxidation inhibiting effect of SnF₂. Additionally, SnF₂ impacts the electronic structure, enhancing the density of states close to the VBM.
The chemical and electronic structure of chalcopyrite absorbers with different bulk band gap energies, Egbulk, [i.e., low-gap Cu(In,Ga)Se2 (CIGSe, Egbulk ~ 1.2 eV) and wide-gap CuInS2 (CIS, Egbulk ~ 1.5 eV)] and of buffer/absorber heterointerfaces based on these materials are studied with soft and hard x-ray spectroscopy techniques. Mechanisms that benefit (limit) the performance of low(wide)-gap chalcopyrite-based solar cells are identified. This knowledge is used to develop surface tailoring treatments to optimize buffer/absorber heterointerfaces based on wide-gap chalcopyrites and improve the performance of their solar cells.
Photoemission spectroscopy (PES) characterization of the two absorbers (i.e., CIGSe and CIS) reveal compositional-depth profiles. The changes detected in CIGSe include: a near surface Ga-depletion, a strongly Cu-poor surface and a strong presence of surface Na that (likely) occupies Cu vacancies. A similar Cu-deficiency is found in CIS. The depth-composition changes result in significant widening of the band gap at the surface, Egsurf, (i.e., CIGSe, Egsurf: 1.70 ± 0.2 eV and CIS, Egsurf: 1.88 ± 0.2 eV) as evident by ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS) and inverse photoemission spectroscopy (IPES) measurements. Differences in the interaction of the CIGSe and CIS surfaces with deposited buffer materials are identified. PES and modified Auger parameter studies reveal strong intermixing at the CdS/CIGSe and ZnS/CIGSe heterointerfaces. S L2,3 x-ray emission spectroscopy (XES) measurements of CIGSe substrates submitted to CdS chemical bath deposition (CBD-CdS) treatments show the formation of In2S3 and defect-rich/nanostructured CdS at the interface, compounds with higher band gap values than the measured Egsurf for CIGSe. S L2,3 XES spectra of CIGSe substrates submitted to CBD-ZnS treatments reveal the formation of (Zn,In)(S,Se)2 chemical analogs at the interface. PES and XES measurement series show that the CdS/CIS heterointerface is more abrupt, with no detected interface chemical species. Direct measurement of the band alignment of these heterointerfaces reveals: an ideal conduction band offset (CBO) configuration for CdS/CIGSe (i.e., CBO: +0.11 ± 0.25 eV), a spike CBO configuration for ZnS/CIGSe (i.e., CBO: +1.06 ± 0.4 eV), and a highly unfavorable cliff CBO configuration for CdS/CIS (i.e., CBO: -0.42 ± 0.25 eV). The performance of solar cell devices based on these heterointerfaces is correlated to their CBO configuration.
Two surface tailoring approaches intended to correct the CBO configuration of the CdS/CIS heterointerface are presented. One method is based on rapid thermal processing (RTP) selenization treatments of CIS absorbers, aiming to exchange Se for S in treated samples. The idea behind this approach is to modify the surface of a wide-gap chalcopyrite so that it forms a more favorable heterointerface with CdS, such as heterointerfaces within low-gap chalcopyrite devices. X-ray fluorescence analysis and PES measurements of RTP-treated CIS samples show a greater treatment effect at the surface of the sample compared to the bulk (i.e., surface [Se]/[S+Se] range: 0.23 ± 0.05 to 0.83 ± 0.05, compared to bulk [Se]/[S+Se] range: 0.01 ± 0.03 to 0.24 ± 0.03). Tuning of the Cu:In:(S+Se) surface composition from a Cu-poor 1:3:5 to a 1:1:2 stoichiometry is observed in RTP-treated CIS samples with lower to higher surface Se contents, respectively. UPS measurements show a shift in valence band maximum toward the Fermi level in samples with higher surface Se content (i.e., -0.88 ± 0.1 to -0.51 ± 0.1 eV), as expected for a reduction in Egsurf due to exchange of Se for S. Ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry reveals a reduction in the optical band gap of samples with greater Se incorporation (i.e., from 1.47 ± 0.05 to 1.08 ± 0.05 eV), allowing for a working window for optimization purposes.
The second tailoring method involves surface functionalization of CIS absorbers with dipole-charge-inducing self-assembled monolayers (SAM) of benzoic acid derivatives and thiol molecules. The introduction of dipole charges between a heterointerface can tune the relative alignment of the electronic bands composing its electronic structure; thus, use of a suitable dipole-inducing SAM could correct the CBO misalignment in the CdS/CIS heterointerface. UPS measurements of the secondary electron cut-off region of CIS samples treated with a selected set of SAMs show a work function modulation of CIS (i.e., 4.4 ± 0.2 eV - 5.2 ± 0.2 eV). Small gains in solar cell parameters of solar cells based on SAM-modified heterointerfaces are measured.
An overview of the performance of chalcopyrite(kesterite)-based solar cells in relation to the electronic properties of their corresponding buffer/absorber heterointerface suggests that optimization approaches extending beyond the buffer/absorber heterointerface may be needed for further performance gains in wide-gap chalcopyrite-based solar cell devices.
The properties of Si thin films for solar cells, the interaction with different substrates and the influence of dopants are examined with synchrotron based x-ray spectroscopy – primarily x-ray emission spectroscopy (XES) and hard x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPES). The films are studied as-deposited (i.e., amorphous, a-Si) and after conversion into polycrystalline (poly-Si) employing solid phase crystallization (SPC). Si L2,3 XES spectra of thin-film Si samples can be described by a superposition of a-Si and monocrystalline Si-wafer (c-Si) reference spectra. According to a quantification based on that superposition principle, none of the investigated samples are completely crystallized – a measurable a-Si component always remains (5-20 %) regardless of deposition and treatment conditions. Based on additional results from electron back scattering diffraction different models are developed which may explain this finding. According to these models, the remnant a-Si component can be attributed to amorphous/disordered material at the grain boundaries. Using one of these models, the thickness of this grain-surrounding material s could be approximated to be (1.5 ± 0.5) nm. Further investigations of the SPC process reveal a faster crystallization for boron-doped samples, and a slower crystallization for phosphorous-doped samples, when compared to the crystallization of undoped a Si:H thin films. The peculiarities of B K XES spectra (and observed changes upon SPC) indicate that boron could act as a nucleation center promoting crystallization. Si L2,3 XES spectra of a-Si:H and P-doped poly-Si exhibit spectral features above the valence band maximum at 100 eV that could be attributed to a-Si defect states and n+-dopant states, respectively. The SPC crystallization velocity of Si thin films on ZnO:Al/glass is found to be faster than that on SiNx/glass substrate. Multiple indications for oxidization at the poly-Si/ZnO:Al interface are found based on our Si L2,3 XES analysis. Spatially resolved x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy data support this and even suggest the formation of sub-oxides or zinc silicate as an interface species. The electronic structure of the buried a-SiOx:H(B)/ZnO:Al and µc-Si:H(B)/ZnO:Al interfaces are unraveled with “depth resolved” hard x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. A surface band bending limited to the very surface of the silicon layers is found. The valence band maxima for the Si cover layers and the ZnO:Al TCO are determined and interface induced band bending for both interfaces are derived. At the a-SiOx:H(B)/ZnO:Al interface a tunnel barrier of (0.22 ± 0.31) eV and at µc-Si:H(B)/ZnO:Al interface a tunnel barrier of (-0.08 ± 0.31) eV is determined. This explains a previously empirically found solar cell efficiency increase produced by introducing a µc-Si:H(B) buffer layer between an a-Si p-i-n cell and the ZnO:Al/glass substrate.
Elektronische Struktur epitaktischer Chalkopyrite und deren Heterokontakte für die Photovoltaik
(2011)
Die vorliegende Arbeit stellt eine umfassende Studie der Oberflächenmorphologie, der elektronischen Struktur und der Heterokontakte epitaktischer CuInSe2-Schichten dar. Sämtliche Analysen wurden unter dem Aspekt der Stöchiometrievariation von CuInSe2 zu kupferarmem CuIn3Se5 durchgeführt. Diese Kombination aus nah-stöchiometrischem Chalkopyrit im Volumen des Absorbers und kupferarmer Defektverbindung im Bereich der Absorber-Puffer-Grenzfläche ist unter anderem für die außergewöhnlich hohe Effizienz der polykristallinen Solarzellen verantwortlich. Sämtliche Präparations- und Analyseschritte wurden im Ultrahochvakuum durchgeführt, um die Untersuchung hochdefinierter und kontaminationsfreier Oberflächen zu gewährleisten. Die Verwendung einkristalliner Proben ermöglicht die Bestimmung der Periodizität der Oberfläche mittels Beugung niederenergetischer Elektronen. Für die natürliche Wachstumsfläche der Chalkopyrite, die (112)-Oberfläche, konnten so beide von der Theorie als stabil vorhergesagten Rekonstruktionen nachgewiesen werden. Dabei handelte es sich um die kupferreiche, durch CuIn-Defekte stabilisierte sowie die nah-stöchiometrische 2 VCu-stabilisierte Oberfläche. Beide Konfigurationen stellen eine c(4x2)-Rekonstruktion gegenüber dem Zinkblendegitter dar und entsprechen somit der natürlichen Ordnung des Chalkopyritgitters. Die mit der Umordnung der Oberfläche verbundene Kupferanreicherung bzw. -verarmung konnte mittels Tiefenprofilierung der Elementkonzentration mit winkelaufgelöster XPS nachgewiesen werden. Für die Oberfläche der Defektverbindung CuIn3Se5 wurde eine Sphaleritordnung gefunden, was auf eine Abwesenheit der Chalkopyritordnung im Volumen des Materials hindeutet. Die ungewöhnliche Stabilität der (112)-Oberfläche konnte durch den Vergleich mit den Rekonstruktionen der (001)- und (220)-Fläche gezeigt werden. Die so gewonnen Kenntnisse hinsichtlich Präparation und Eigenschaften der Oberflächen wurde herangezogen, um die Valenzbandstruktur des CuInSe2 mit winkelaufgelöster Photoemission zu messen. An CuInSe2(001)-Proben sind die Hochsymmetrierichtung Gamma-T und Gamma-N des reziproken Raumes zugänglich. Der Vergleich der experimentellen Ergebnisse mit Bandstrukturen der Dichtefunktionaltheorie offenbarte eine überraschend genaue Übereinstimmung. Deutliche Abweichungen, wie sie etwa für d-Elektronenzustände in Zn-VI-Verbindungen beobachtet werden treten in CuInSe2 nicht auf. Die Gegenüberstellung der nah-stöchiometrischen mit der Defektverbindung für Proben in (112)-Orientierung zeigte eine energetische Verbreiterung der Bänder durch eine erhöhte Defektdichte sowie eine Reduktion der Dispersion: Diese kann als erhöhte Lokalisation der elektronischen Zustände im Material mit hoher Defektdichte aufgefasst werden. Schließlich wurden für die Anwendung in der Photovoltaik relevante Grenzflächen des CuInSe2 untersucht. Hervorzuheben ist hier die Valenzbanddiskontinuität mit CuIn3Se5, die sich aus der Absenkung des Valenzbandmaximums durch die reduzierte p-d-Abstoßung in der Defektverbindung ergibt. Diese Diskontinuität wurde mit Photoemission an epitaktischen Schichten nachgewiesen und betrug 0.28 eV, in guter Übereinstimmung mit Ergebnissen der Theorie. In direktem Kontakt mit dem Absorber steht die Pufferschicht, wobei als Cadmium-freie Alternative ZnO untersucht wurde, welches mittels metall-organischen Prekursoren abgeschieden wurde. Die Verschiebung des Fermi-Niveaus innerhalb der Bandlücke in Folge der Grenzflächenausbildung führt zur Bildung von Kupferfehlstellen im Absorber und damit zur Entstehung der kupferarmen Grenzschicht. Diese grenzt an eine nur ca. 1 nm dicke ZnSe-Schicht, welche der initiellen Wachstumsphase des ZnO entspricht. Unabhängig von der Zusammensetzung des Chalkopyritabsorbers bildet sich also eine CuIn3Se5/ZnSe-Grenzfläche zwischen Absorber und Fensterschicht aus. Die gefundenen Bandanpassungen zwischen CuInSe2 und ZnSe bzw. ZnO zeigen keine Orientierungsabhängigkeit und entsprechen den theoretischen Ergebnissen. Für den elektronischen Transport im Leitungsband ergibt sich eine vorteilhafte Situation.