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Optical lock-in thermography is a completely contactless and very sensitive NDT technique. As an optical source of energy, incandescent (i.e. halogen) lamps are most commonly used because they are relatively inexpensive and offer high irradiances at the test site. However, they are strongly restricted by their low modulation bandwidth with a maximum modulation frequency of only about 1 Hz. The use of high-power kilowatt-class laser sources, e.g. diode laser arrays, pushes this constraint beyond 100 Hz, see Fig.1. This allows for the exploration of the near-surface region of metals and layer systems with better and more accurate penetration depth and depth resolution. Moreover, these lasers are virtually free of any additional thermal radiation that could interfere with the “true” thermal response emitted from the heated sample. In turn, they can be easily used in a one-sided test configuration.
Using the one-dimensional solution to the thermal heat diffusion equation together with the absorptance of the material which is illuminated with a harmonically modulated light source, we can calculate the temperature oscillation at the surface of a solid. As a second step, we calculate the corresponding oscillation of the total thermal emission using Stefan-Boltzmann law as a first order approximation and taking into account the emissivity of the material. Within this framework we can calculate the minimal irradiance of a light source necessary to provoke a measurable signal within a thermographic camera at a noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) of 30 mK. In Fig. 2 this relationship is displayed for a wide spectrum of modulation frequencies and for a number of different light sources scaled to the same electrical input power and illumination area. Using this figure, it is now easily possible to analyze the range of materials to be tested using lock-in thermography, since only the materials (dotted lines) below the irradiance-vs-frequency curves (solid lines) are heated in excess of the camera’s NETD. This figure clearly shows that laser sources considerably increase the application range of lock-in thermography, since especially for metals with a high reflectance and high thermal diffusivity a high irradiance is vitally important to allow for lock-in texting.
We present current activities with kilowatt-class high-power laser sources for advanced lock-in thermography and focus on the application of laser arrays that offer a very high irradiation strength over a large sample area beyond the mentioned advantages.
Da derzeit keine zerstörungsfreie Alternative zur Lokalisierung von Leitungswasserschäden in Fußböden existiert, werden in der Regel unter hohem zeitlichen und finanziellen Aufwand Sondierungsbohrungen vorgenommen, um das entnommene Material im Labor thermo-gravimetrisch zu untersuchen. Dabei nehmen Leitungswasserschäden mit rd. 2,6 Milliarden Euro jährlich den deutlich größten Posten bei Gebäudeversicherungen ein. Für derartige Fragestellungen werden seit einigen Jahren Neutronensonden eingesetzt. Mit diesem Verfahren ist es möglich, sich einen Überblick über die Gesamtwassermenge in einem definierten Baustoffvolumen zu verschaffen, jedoch kann flüssiges und chemisch gebundenes Wasser nicht unterschieden werden. Daher werden die Messdaten mit den Ergebnissen der Sondierungsbohrungen kalibriert. So können auch große Flächen wie Industriefußböden in relativ kurzer Zeit größtenteils zerstörungsfrei untersucht werden. Da die integrale Messweise der Neutronensonde allerdings keine Tiefenzuordnung eines gefundenen Feuchteschadens zulässt, muss auch diese Information über die Bohrkerne generiert werden. Die Idee des Projekts ist, durch den parallelen Einsatz des Radarverfahrens in Zukunft auf Sondierungsbohrungen verzichten zu können. Nach der Abgrenzung trockener von feuchten Bereichen über die Neutronensonde, wird das Radarverfahren herangezogen, um typische Schadensfälle zerstörungsfrei zu unterscheiden. In systematischen Laborstudien an modular aufgebauten Referenzprobekörpern untersuchen wir die Nachweisgrenzen und Detektionswahrscheinlichkeiten der beiden Verfahren für verschiedene, häufig anzutreffende Fußbodenaufbauten. Anschließend sollen über Datenfusion und Signalverarbeitung innovative Auswertungsansätze entwickelt werden, welche die Messergebnisse von Neutronensonde und Radar automatisiert zur Gewinnung eines höheren Informationsgehalts und zur Klassifizierung der Schadensfälle kombinieren. Im Rahmen des Projekts wird die erarbeitete Vorgehensweise an real geschädigten Objekten getestet, um die Methode zu etablieren sowie Akzeptanz bei Anwendern und Eigentümern zu schaffen. Könnten durch genauere Schadenseingrenzung die Sanierungskosten um nur 4% gesenkt werden, ergäbe sich in Deutschland eine Kostenreduzierung von ca. 100 Million Euro jährlich.
THz and mid IR spectroscopy of high-molecular PE (HMW) and ultra high-molecular PE (UHMW) reveals modifications of the molecular structure. Characteristic absorption bands are changed if the two materials are exposed by -Co60 radiation up to 600 kGy and subsequently stored at an annealing temperature of 398 K until for 729 days. UHMW-PE and HMW-PE behave differently during the ageing process because of their molecular weight and inherent structure distinctions. The spectroscopic data offer characteristic absorption bands, which have been used to describe the complete ageing process in more detail. For instance, the integral absorption in the B1u THz-region can be used to describe quantitatively the reduction of crystallinity. The formation of trans vinylene unsaturation and the decay of vinyl during ageing can be observed in detail in the mid IR range.
Other than commonly assumed the relaxation times observed in the electrical low-frequency range (1 mHz – 40 kHz) of natural porous media like sandstones and tuff stones cannot be directly related to the dominant (modal) pore throat sizes, measured (e.g.) with mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP). Working with a great variety of sandstones from very different origins and featuring great variations in textural and chemical compositions as well as in geometrical pore space properties, we observed that particularly samples with narrow pore throats were characterized by long (low-frequency) relaxations. These, however, can (following the current theories) be rather explained by long “characteristic length scales” in these media or low diffusion coefficients along the electrical double layer. However, there is no straightforward way (or single approved method) of getting reliable numbers for properties such as the lengths of pore throats, the diameter and length of the wide pores and their respective distributions. Consequently we follow a multi-methodical approach and combine the benefits of MIP, micro-computed tomography (µ-CT) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) to achieve much deeper insight due to the different resolutions and sensitivities to either pore constrictions (throats) or wide pores. This helps us to understand, whether the observed electrical relaxation phenomena actually depend on geometric length scales or rather on other properties such as chemical composition, clay content, clay type or cation exchange capacity. Our poster showcases selected results of a systematic study on texturally and petrophysically very different sandstones.
Nuklear magnetische Resonanz (NMR) etabliert sich zunehmend im Bauingenieurwesen als eine alternative Methode zur zerstörungsfreien Feuchtebestimmung in Baustoffen. Schäden, die durch einen zu hohen Anteil an Flüssigwasser auftreten können, sind Ablösungen, Korrosion, Frostschäden, Induktion von Salzkristallisationen, etc. Aufgrund der Sensitivität für 1H-Protonen, ist NMR eine geeignete Methode zur Feuchtedetektion. Dabei kann laut Theorie zwischen frei, chemisch oder physikalisch gebundenem Wasser differenziert werden, während in der Praxis abhängig von der Messtechnik und Probengröße größtenteils nur das freie Wasser detektierbar ist. Mithilfe der NMR Relaxometrie lassen sich nicht nur Relaxationsabklingkurven ermitteln, sondern auch Relaxationszeitenverteilungen, sowie bei Vollsättigung ggf. eine Porengrößenverteilung ableiten. Darüber hinaus lassen sich erste Annahmen über die Entwicklung der Porensättigung bei Teilsättigung der Probe treffen.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung der zeitlichen Entwicklung der Porensättigung während des natürlichen Trocknungsprozesses (Teilsättigung) sowie die Ermittlung der Porengrößenverteilung an Beispiel von zementgebundenen Estrichen. Für den Versuch wurden zwei zementgebundene Estrichproben nach abgeschlossener Hydratation wieder aufgesättigt. Während des anschließenden natürlichen Trocknungsprozesses wurden regelmäßig NMR-Messungen durchgeführt sowie die Massenentwicklung observiert. Hauptfokus lag auf der zeitlichen und tiefenabhängigen Entwicklung der Relaxationszeitenverteilungen. Bei fortschreitender Trocknung der Proben konnte eine Verschiebung des Maximums der Relaxationszeitenverteilung zu kleineren Zeiten beobachtet werden. Die Ursache liegt zum einen in dem abnehmenden Anteil an freiem Wasser in größeren Poren und zum anderen in dem verhältnismäßig zunehmenden Signalanteil durch Wasser in kleineren Poren.
Durch den Vergleich mit Quecksilberporosimetrie und Gas-Adsorptions-Ergebnissen, konnte aus den NMR-Daten eine unimodale Porengrößenverteilung mit einer dominanten Porengröße von 0,08 bis 0,1 µm und eine effektive Oberflächenrelaxivität von ca. 10 bis 30 µm/s abgeleitet werden.
THz and mid IR spectroscopy of high-molecular PE (HMW) and ultra high-molecular PE (UHMW) are appropriated to characterize theire molecular structure.
Characteristic absorption bands are changed if the two materials are exposed by gamma-Co60 radiation up to 600 kGy and subsequently stored at an annealing temperature of 398 K until for 729 days. The spectroscopic data oarfe used to describe the existing ageing process in more detail.
Thermographic NDE is based on the interaction of thermal waves with inhomogeneities. These inhomogeneities are related to sample geometry or material composition. Although thermography is suitable for a wide range of inhomogeneities and materials, the fundamental limitation is the diffusive nature of thermal waves and the need to measure their effect radiometrically at the sample surface only. The propagation of the thermal waves from the heat source to the inhomogeneity and to the detection surface results in a degradation in the spatial resolution of the technique. A new concerted ansatz based on a spatially structured heating and a joint sparsity of the signal ensemble allows an improved reconstruction of inhomogeneities. As a first step to establish an improved thermographic NDE method, an experimental setup was built based on structured 1D illumination using a flash lamp behind a mechanical aperture. As a follow-up to this approach, we now use direct structured illumination using a 1D laser array. The individual emitter cells are driven by a random binary pattern and additionally shifted by fractions of the cell period. The repeated measurement of these different configurations with simultaneously constant inhomogeneity allows for a reconstruction that makes use of joint sparsity. With analytical-numerical modelling or numerical FEM simulations, we study the influence of the parameters on the result of non-linear reconstruction. For example, the influence of the illumination pattern as a variable heat flux density and Neumann boundary condition for convolution with the constant Green's function can be studied. These studies can be used to derive optimal conditions for a measurement technique.
Optical lock-in thermography is a completely contactless and very sensitive NDE technique. As an optical source of energy, incandescent (i.e. halogen) lamps are most commonly used because they are relatively inexpensive, do not need any work safety measures and offer high irradiances at the test site. However, they are strongly restricted by their low modulation bandwidth with a maximum modulation frequency of only about 1 Hz. The use of high-power kilowatt-class laser sources, e.g. diode laser arrays, pushes this constraint beyond 100 Hz. This allows for the exploration of the near-surface region of metals and layer systems with better and more accurate penetration depth and depth resolution. Moreover, these lasers are virtually free of any additional thermal radiation that could interfere with the “true” thermal response emitted from the heated sample. In turn, they can be easily used in a one-sided test configuration. Altogether using lasers considerably increases the application range of lock-in thermography, since especially for metals with a high reflectance and high thermal diffusivity a high irradiance is vitally important to allow for lock-in testing [1, 2]. We report on the mentioned benefits of using such high-power lasers and analyze the range of materials to be tested using lock-in thermography in dependence on the laser irradiance, the modulation frequency, the infrared camera as well as the optical and thermal material parameters. In this context, we also address a number of systematic errors caused by the use of ideal and non-ideal heat sources. For example, the measured phase angle in lock-in thermography depends on the irradiance and the modulation bandwidth of the source. This in turn has a decisive influence on the uncertainty in the quantification of, e.g. layer thicknesses.
Additive manufacturing (AM) offers a range of novel applications. However, the manufacturing process is complex and the production of defect-free parts with a high reliability is still a challenge. Thermography is a valuable tool for process surveillance, especially in metal AM processes. The high process temperatures allow one to use cameras usually operating in the visible spectral range. Here, we compare the results of first measurements during the manufacturing process of a commercial laser metal deposition (LMD) setup using a MWIR camera with those from a VIS high-speed camera with band pass filter in the NIR range.