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Recent research has suggested that some of the inks used in Herculaneum papyri do not consist of pure carbon. Starting from this finding, in June 2018 a preliminary campaign of analysis by means of X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) of external portions removed mechanically from their original rolls in the eighteenth century (the so-called scorze) took place at the Biblioteca Nazionale at Naples. Also in this case, the aim of the survey was to investigate the ink composition in order to detect possible traces of metal. This article sums up the results of this survey.
This thesis addresses the development of a methodological approach for the non-invasive identification of colourants and for the classification of binding media in reverse glass paintings from the early 20th century. For this purpose, mobile and miniaturized devices were used to measure the paintings in situ. The methodology includes X-ray fluorescence (XRF), VIS spectroscopy (VIS), Raman spectroscopy and diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS). In a first step the capabilities of DRIFTS for binding media classification and pigment identification were tested.
DRIFTS enables, besides Raman spectroscopy, the collection of molecular information of a substance that can be used as characteristic fingerprint spectrum. However, the simultaneous collection of both specular (surface) and diffuse (volume) reflection leads to complicated mixed DRIFT spectra, that can vary strongly for one substance depending on the dominant fraction of reflected light. Specular reflection causes several spectral distortions like inverted bands, band shifts and derivative-like features whereas pure diffuse reflections leads to an intensity enhancement of combination bands and overtones. Both specular and diffuse reflection cannot be optically separated, and their proportion depends on material properties like the absorption coefficient and the refractive index as well as on Parameters like surface roughness, porosity, grain size and angle of incidence and detection. A direct comparison of DRIFT spectra with IR spectra of other methods (e.g. transmission, ATR) is not possible, hence the creation of DRIFTS databases was needed. The next step was the complimentary utilization of Raman spectroscopy and DRIFTS for the dentification of synthetic organic colourants. Such colourants are in the further chapters called synthetic organic pigments (SOP) even when it’s not always entirely clear if they are soluble dyes or pigments that are practically insoluble in the medium in which they are incorporated. Raman spectroscopy is generally the method of choice when dealing with SOP, but fluorescence can hamper the Raman spectrum severely, inhibiting the proper identification of the pigment.
DRIFTS was successfully applied and several SOP like synthetic alizarin (PR83), the yellow azo pigments (e.g. PY1) or the red and orange β-naphthol pigments (e.g. PR3) could be identified in the paintings solely by means of DRIFTS. The holistic methodological sequence was defined after the successful establishment of DRIFTS as serious analytical alternative. As the time is always the most limiting factor for in situ measurement campaigns in museums, the 9
sequence needs to be time saving but also efficient. The methodology starts with quick measurements by XRF and VIS to get a first idea of the pigment composition, followed by the validation of the results with the vibrational spectroscopies for selected points.
Measurements of reverse glass paintings by Carlo Mense and Wassily Kandinsky were conducted to test the entire procedure. A high number of pigments could be identified, including several rare ones like strontium white (SrSO4), PR60 and PB52. The binding media were classified using the previously recorded references. The results were set in the art historian context and were discussed in a multidisciplinary way. The influence of Asian art, especially of Chinese reverse glass paintings as source of inspiration for artists of the “Blauer Reiter” collective (e.g. Wassily Kandinsky, Gabriele Münter, Franz Marc und Heinrich Campendonk) is shown. Non-invasive measurements of two Chinese reverse glass paintings from the late 19th and early 20th century were conducted, enabling a comparison of the palettes of Chinese and European painters. The Chinese palette includes heavy use of red lead and orpiment, pigments that were hardly sed in Europe anymore. More modern pigments like zinc white, cadmium yellow, viridian, chromates, cobalt blues or SOP were not found at all in the Chinese paintings.
The Montserrat Codex Miscellaneus (TM 59453/LDAB 552) has been the subject of numerous studies since the publication of ist first text by its owner, father Ramon Roca-Puig. Scholars have dealt with the content of its texts, as well as interrogated its origin and materiality. It is a fourth-century papyrus single quire codex, which contains texts in both Latin and Greek. It has been argued that it belonged to the Bodmer library, connected to a Pachomian library in the Thebaid. In this paper we want to contribute to the material study of the codex by presenting the first results of an archaeometric analysis performed upon the inks. The Analysis was carried out within the framework of the ‘PAThs’ project based at Sapienza University of Rome, and executed with the close cooperation of DVCTVS, a team of scholars who curate the Roca-Puig collection. The results obtained have not only cast light on the history of production of the codex, but also, and perhaps most importantly, point out that a meaningful interpretation of the analytical data is only possible through an interdisciplinary collaboration between the humanities and the natural sciences.
An interdisciplinary approach to the study of manuscript traditions is here applied to the analysis of the leaves from the White Monastery, one of the greatest centres of literary production in Late Antique Egypt. In the framework of the ‘PAThs’ project, archaeometric analyses complement the information pieced together by a range of disciplines in the field of humanities. The use of different complementary analytical techniques provides information on the type of ink used and its elemental composition, unveiling interesting details regarding the materials and methodology of manufacturing of writing media. Moreover, this contribution takes a step forward and discusses the possible existence of a regional arrangement in the elemental composition revealed in the inks studied.
Scientific analysis based on spectroscopic methods provide essential information on the composition of colourants and binders in paintings. These results can be set in a historical context and help to confirm art historical interpretations. Proofs of certain pigments can be used for dating purposes and may reveal if the artist used not only local but also imported materials. A pilot study of two Chinese reverse glass paintings from the late 19th (Yingying and Hongniang) and early 20th centuries (The Archer) was performed using a multi-analytical approach including X-ray fluorescence (XRF), diffuse reflectance infrared Fourier transform spectroscopy (DRIFTS) and Raman spectroscopy. This approach allowed the identification of the pigments and the classification of the binding media. The results reveal a combined use of traditional Chinese and imported European materials. Several pigments like cinnabar, lead white, orpiment, carbon black and copper-arsenic green (probably emerald green) were found in both paintings; red lead, artificial ultramarine blue, Prussian blue and ochre appear in at least one of the paintings. The proof of limewash (calcite and small amounts of portlandite) as a backing layer in “Yingying and Hongniang” indicates that clamshell white was also used for reverse glass paintings. Drying oil was classified as a binding media in most areas of both paintings. However, the orange background of The Archer yielded prominent bands of both proteinaceous and fatty binder.
We present here our methodological approach applied to the study of Egyptian inks in Late Antiquity. It is based on an interdisciplinary strategy, bringing together a variety of disciplines from humanities and natural sciences, and it aims at systematically collecting a statistically relevant amount of data regarding the composition of the inks. The application of a wellestablished, non-invasive protocol that includes near-infrared imaging and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy for in situ measurements enables the identification and characterisation of inks dating from the end of Late Antiquity onwards. However, sometimes this method limits our understanding when characterising more ancient inks. Trying to overcome these limitations, the potential of a new device for the characterisation of organic compounds is here explored by conducting preliminary tests on mock samples.
In this work, we present the results from 77 codicological units that include some of the earliest manuscripts of our corpus that presently lists 159 units.
The aim of the lecture is to present the productive interplay of connoisseurs and material analysis using the example of selected drawings from the Rembrandt collection of the Klassik Stiftung Weimar. We try to determine the point at which the question of the materiality of the drawings makes sense in the traditional discourse of connoisseurship. On the one hand, this involves the question of authorship – Rembrandt – or not? – and the locating of attributed drawings in the context of the work. On the other hand, it is about making drawing processes visible, characterizing ways of drawing and workshop practices as well as distinguishing different forms of reworking and copying within the Rembrandt workshop. The material analyses culminate in the question of whether Rembrandt’s inks can be distinguished at all.
It becomes apparent that the newly gained knowledge about the materiality of the drawing no longer reveals itself to the “mere” view of the connoisseur. Rather, it is only generated by the digital image. The rhetoric of connoisseurs must therefore be contrasted with the necessity of a hermeneutics of the digital image. The envisaged “material turn” of drawing science is thus simultaneously able to take up the critique of the question of authorship, which has been growing ever more recently, and to transfer it to a more comprehensive perspective of aesthetics of production.
In this poster we will present some results of a research projects dealing with Arabic recipes of black inks. To improve conservation practices of Arabic manuscripts we have assessed the feasibility of the recipes collected from many Arabic sources on bookmaking and reproduced the most common inks. Ink samples were then artificially aged and analysed using an array of analytical techniques, mostly non-invasive, in order to build a database of Arabic inks and their ingredients and also to verify the detection limits of the portable equipment employed.
We will show procedures and problems concerning the identification of ink types and ingredients using reflectography (in Vis, IR and UV), X-Ray Fluorescence, Infrared and Raman spectroscopy. The focus will be in particular on squid ink and mixed inks – both in the form of carbon inks with the addition of tannins and of a mixture of carbon and iron gall inks – which are particularly difficult to detect. We will also examine the results of iron gall inks made with iron filings or nails instead of vitriol, the various precursor used to extract gallic acid that are mentioned in the sources as surrogates of gall nuts.
In the last decade, applications of X-rays to the study of manuscripts significantly spread in both diversity and extent. They range from writing material analysis, mostly with X-ray fluorescence (XRF), permitting non-invasive characterization of inks and pigments used, to the investigation of the origin of writing supports. In addition, XRF mapping has proved to be an invaluable tool for recovering erased text. Finally, computed-tomography (CT) has shown potential in virtually unrolling rolls, making text readable without using-damaging mechanical methods. Despite their growing use, little attention has been paid to the side effects of such analytical tools. We observed irreversible parchment colour changes during some experiments on dead-sea scrolls with synchrotron radiation sources. Furthermore, partial photo-reduction of iron under high intensity beam during X-ray absorption near edge structure spectroscopy (XANES) measurements of iron-gall ink on paper has been reported several times [5,6]. Such phenomena have mostly been overlooked so far, although there is an increasing awareness of the necessity to study them. We conducted experiments at the Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY) facilities to investigate X-ray induced structural alteration of paper and parchment to see whether the presence of absorption centres (ink and pigments) has an impact. In addition to better understanding degradation processes, we are aiming to define an appropriate methodology of analysis of manuscripts with a tolerable risk of damage. The first results concerning X-ray induced damage of cellulose materials have already been presented at the Synchrotron Radiation and Neutrons in Art and Archaeology (SR2A). We are focusing here on the results on parchment materials.
While studying the socio-geographic history of inks, division 4.5 (Analysis of cultural artefacts and assets) of the BAM (Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung) in Berlin together with the Centre for the Study of Manuscript Cultures in Hamburg has developed a protocol for ink analysis. It consists of a primary screening to determine the type of the ink, and a subsequent in-depth analysis using several spectroscopic techniques.
Using this protocol, scientists can assist scholars in addressing a rather broad range of historical questions that cannot be answered unequivocally through scholarly research alone. Among these are investigations on collaboration between scribes and scriptoria, on the usage and annotation of manuscripts and on their path through time and space in general. This research can thus help to reconstruct the circumstances of the production of written heritage as well as their history and transmission.
To facilitate the dialogue between the scholars and the scientists a simple optical tool was developed to allow the scholars to perform preliminary ink analysis required for formulation of the question that in turn can be answered by scientific in-depth investigations. In this paper, ink types and their identification method is accompanied by examples of the recent work conducted on parchment manuscripts in the Austrian National Library.