BAM Dissertationsreihe
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- Analytical Solution (1)
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90
Up to now only little knowledge has been recorded about the fire behavior and flame retardancy of wood-plastic composites (WPCs). The use of WPCs has increased continuously in recent years. Especially in their main field of application as a decking material, WPCs present a big share of the market. To date no flame-retarded solution has been introduced for WPC materials that fulfils the necessary requirements. But flameretarded materials are indispensable, especially for indoor use and the protection of escape routes. In this study basic knowledge about the fire behavior of WPCs is investigated first. Second, the effectiveness and mode of action of different flame-retardant additives is investigated. Special attention is drawn to products made of WPC material. Therefore WPC was further investigated in its main field of application as decking boards. The fire behavior of materials and products was investigated by means of cone calorimeter measurements as well as radiant panel tests. Furthermore numerical simulations were carried out to study the effects of various thermal material properties on burning behavior. Thermal decomposition was studied using thermogravimetric methods and spectroscopic investigations. Against this background, models for thermal decomposition pathways were built for combinations of WPC material with different flame retardants. WPCs show burning behavior similar to that of pure wood samples with an increased heat release rate due to polymeric fractions. It is shown that all investigated flame retardants had a positive effect on the burning behavior of WPCs. The best results were achieved by the flame retardants ammonium polyphosphate, Paxymer and expandable graphite. Especially in combination with red phosphorus, expandable graphite was highly effective because red phosphorus stabilized formed residue. Apart from the influence of flame retardants, other influencing factors like geometry and moisture content also played an important role concerning the flame retardancy of WPC decking boards. Indeed, hollow decking boards offer a reduced amount of combustible material, but their flame spread is increased in comparison to solid samples.
89
This thesis investigated gas sensing by means of surface plasmon resonance enhanced ellipsometry. Surface plasmons were excited in a 40 - 50 nm gold layer by a He-Ne-laser using the Kretschmann configuration, which was arranged on a self-made copper measuring cell. A fixed angle of incidence and the ellipsometric parameter Δ as the measured value were used to monitor changes in the gas phase. Different types of gases were investigated: flammable (hydrocarbons and hydrogen), oxidising (oxygen and ozone), toxic (carbon monoxide) and inert (helium and nitrogen). The gas types can be distinguished by their refractive indices, whereas the sensor responds instantly relative to the reference gas with an increase or a decrease in Δ. Diluting the analyte gas with a reference gas (nitrogen or air) allowed the detection limits to be determined, these lay in the low % range. The sensor stability was also enhanced as well as the sensitivity by modifying the gold layers with a 3-10 nm additional layer. These additional layers consisted of the inorganic materials TiO2, ZrO2, MgF2 and Fe: SnO2 which were deposited by different coating processes. Surface investigations were made of every utilised layer: scanning electron microscope and atomic force microscope measurements for surface topology and spectroscopic ellipsometry mapping to determine the optical constants and the layer thicknesses. All applied materials protected the gold layer from contaminations and thus prolonged the life span of the sensor. Furthermore, the detection limits were reduced significantly, to the low ppm range. The material Fe: SnO2 demonstrates a special behaviour in reaction with the toxic gas carbon monoxide: Due to the iron doping, the response to carbon monoxide is extraordinary and concentrations below 1 ppm were detected. In order to approach a future application in industry, the sensor system was adapted to a stainless steel tube. With this measuring arrangement, pulse and pressure experiments could be performed. The probable mechanisms occuring at the sensor surface and feasible applications in the future are discussed in this thesis.
88
The most important results of the dissertation are: 1. Systematic experimental investigations of the vapour-plasma plume generated during deep penetration high-power (10÷20 kW) ytterbium fiber laser beamwelding of low-alloyed mild steel plates were carried out. 2. It was confirmed experimentally that free electron temperature and concentration in the laser- induced welding plasma plume are negligibly low (Т < 4500 К,ne < 10 15 cm-3). On the basis of these values it can be affirmed that absorption and refraction of high power fiber laser radiation in the welding plasma plume are not able to influence the welding quality in this case. 3. It was shown that the vapour-plasma welding plume is composed of the welding plasma generated in a relatively small area (5-10 mm height) near the metal surface and of an extensive upper part (up to 60-70 mm height) which consists of a small condensed metal vapour particle cloud and is able to absorb electromagnetic radiation. 4. Average condensed metal vapour particle diameter in the welding plume was measured experimentally to vary from 80 nm to 110 nm depending on the welding plume height as well as on the welding process parameters. Volume particle concentration in the cloud on the welding plume axis has a value of about 1010 cm-3. 5. Extinction of the probe laser radiation in the upper part of the welding plume is mainly caused by absorption in the small condensed metal vapour particles. The extinction coefficient at the probe radiation wavelength of 1.3 μm was measured experimentally to have a value of about a few units per meter which is much higher than the inverse Bremsstrahlung absorption coefficient in the welding plasma plume calculated for this radiation wavelength. 6. Shielding gas (Ar or He) supplied to the welding area leads to intensive cooling of the welding plasma in the lower part of the welding plume down to its complete suppression. However, due to the more intensive metal vapour condensation process in the colder medium above the keyhole, the upper part influence can become even stronger. 7. Total attenuation of the high-power fiber laser beam propagating through the whole welding plume height to the metal surface was estimated to be about 10%. Considering the spatial dynamics of the probe light extinction signals it was concluded that the effect of metal vapour condensation over the keyhole during deep penetration high-power fiber laser metal welding is able to significantly worsen of the laser beam power stability when the beam reaches the keyhole inlet.
87
Saprotrophic basidiomycetes decompose wood in aerobic environments and can cause economic damage. The availability of nitrogen is determining for decomposition, and diazotrophic bacteria might enhance the nitrogen availability by fixation of atmospheric N2. Simultaneous decomposition by basidiomycetes and diazotrophs may intensify decomposition, because N2 fixation requires ATP, which could be provided during cellulose decomposition. In this study, the interaction was analysed by measurements of the nitrogen content and the δ15N values in biomass. Besides, the activity of basidiomycetes, influenced by different nitrogen sources, was determined. The analysis of the nitrogen content in biomass of Oligoporus placenta and Trametes versicolor proved the efficient uptake of organic nitrogen by wood-decomposing fungi even if only traces were available. In the presence of urea and ammonium chloride, the growth of T. versicolor was intensified. At cultivations in a 15N2/O2 atmosphere, the diazotrophic bacteria Azotobacter croococcum, Beijerinckia acida and Novosphingobium nitrogenifigens covered 1 to 13% of the nitrogen in their biomass by N2 fixation. If basidiomycetes and diazotrophs were co-cultivated, only B. acida fixed N2 and transferred it to both fungi. A. croococcum and N. nitrogenifigens did not coexist with the fungi. The effects of the nitrogen sources, i.e., organic nitrogen in the medium, organic nitrogen in sapwood and N2 from air, on the biomass of the mentioned basidiomycetes were determined in experiments according to full-factorial experimental plans. Organic nitrogen in the medium increased the growth of both basidiomycetes significantly. In additional experiments, the nitrogen source in the medium was replaced by an inoculum of B. acida. Then, atmospheric N2 supported the bacterial growth, which caused a significant decrease of basidiomycetal biomass compared to N2-free conditions. The presence of B. acida increased the biomass of T. versicolor to a low extent, but had no effect on the biomass of O. placenta. In contrast to the previously mentioned organisms, Hypholoma fasciculare and proteobacteria occur together in nature. In experiments, the growth of biomass of H. fasciculare and proteobacteria was supported by organic nitrogen, urea and ammonium chloride. The N2 fixation of the bacteria was significant but amounted to a low extent and was therefore explained by adsorption and not by nitrogenase activity. Competition between H. fasciculare and proteobacteria for the same nitrogen sources appeared more probable than N enrichment by diazotrophic activity.
86
Saprotrophic basidiomycetes decompose wood in aerobic environments and can cause economic damage. The availability of nitrogen is determining for decomposition, and diazotrophic bacteria might enhance the nitrogen availability by fixation of atmospheric N2. Simultaneous decomposition by basidiomycetes and diazotrophs may intensify decomposition, because N2 fixation requires ATP, which could be provided during cellulose decomposition. In this study, the interaction was analysed by measurements of the nitrogen content and the δ15N values in biomass. Besides, the activity of basidiomycetes, influenced by different nitrogen sources, was determined. The analysis of the nitrogen content in biomass of Oligoporus placenta and Trametes versicolor proved the efficient uptake of organic nitrogen by wood-decomposing fungi even if only traces were available. In the presence of urea and ammonium chloride, the growth of T. versicolor was intensified. At cultivations in a 15N2/O2 atmosphere, the diazotrophic bacteria Azotobacter croococcum, Beijerinckia acida and Novosphingobium nitrogenifigens covered 1 to 13% of the nitrogen in their biomass by N2 fixation. If basidiomycetes and diazotrophs were co-cultivated, only B. acida fixed N2 and transferred it to both fungi. A. croococcum and N. nitrogenifigens did not coexist with the fungi. The effects of the nitrogen sources, i.e., organic nitrogen in the medium, organic nitrogen in sapwood and N2 from air, on the biomass of the mentioned basidiomycetes were determined in experiments according to full-factorial experimental plans. Organic nitrogen in the medium increased the growth of both basidiomycetes significantly. In additional experiments, the nitrogen source in the medium was replaced by an inoculum of B. acida. Then, atmospheric N2 supported the bacterial growth, which caused a significant decrease of basidiomycetal biomass compared to N2-free conditions. The presence of B. acida increased the biomass of T. versicolor to a low extent, but had no effect on the biomass of O. placenta. In contrast to the previously mentioned organisms, Hypholoma fasciculare and proteobacteria occur together in nature. In experiments, the growth of biomass of H. fasciculare and proteobacteria was supported by organic nitrogen, urea and ammonium chloride. The N2 fixation of the bacteria was significant but amounted to a low extent and was therefore explained by adsorption and not by nitrogenase activity. Competition between H. fasciculare and proteobacteria for the same nitrogen sources appeared more probable than N enrichment by diazotrophic activity.
85
The present thesis provides a contribution to the solution of the inverse heat conduction problem in welding simulation. The solution strategy is governed by the need that the phenomenological simulation model utilised for the direct solution has to provide calculation results within short computational time. This is a fundamental criterion in order to apply optimisation algorithms for the detection of optimal model parameter sets. The direct simulation model focuses on the application of functional-analytical methods for solving the corresponding partial differential equation of heat conduction. In particular, volume heat sources with a bounding of the domain of action are applied. Besides the known normal and exponential distribution, the models are extended by the introduction of parabolically distributed heat sources. Furthermore, the movement on finite specimens under consideration of curved trajectories has been introduced and solved analytically. The calibration of heat source models against experimental reference data involves the simultaneous adaptation of model parameters. Here, the global parameter space is searched in a randomised manner. However, an optimisation pre-processing is needed to get information about the sensitivity of the weld characteristics like weld pool dimension or objective function due to a change of the model parameters. Because of their low computational cost functional-analytical models are well suited to allow extensive sensitivity studies which is demonstrated in this thesis. For real welding experiments the applicability of the simulation framework to reconstruct the temperature field is shown. In addition, computational experiments are performed that allow to evaluate which experimental reference data is needed to represent the temperature field uniquely. Moreover, the influence of the reference data like fusion line in the cross section or temperature measurements are examined concerning the response behaviour of the objective function and the uniqueness of the optimisation problem. The efficient solution of the inverse problem requires two aspects, namely fast solutions of the direct problem but also a reasonable number of degrees of freedom of the optimization problem. Hence, a method was developed that allows the direct derivation of the energy distribution by means of the fusion line in the cross section, which allows reducing the dimension of the optimisation problem significantly. All conclusions regarding the sensitivity studies and optimisation behaviour are also valid for numerical models for which reason the investigations can be treated as generic.
83
Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) has been applied for the analysis of biomolecules due to its high sensitivity, wide linear dynamic range, and multielement capabilities. However, outside the elemental MS community the potential of this technique, e.g. for life sciences applications, is not yet fully exploited. Thus, the development of ICP-MS-based (immuno) assays for a wide range of medical (cancer diagnostics, cisplatin toxicity studies), biochemical (DNA microarray, single cell analysis), and environmental (analysis of comestible goods) applications was accomplished by utilization of chemical labels. Laser ablation (LA)-ICP-MS was employed for the direct analysis of solid samples like microarrays and thin tissue sections. An immunoassay was developed for ochratoxin A (OTA) determination in wine, and ICP-MS detection was compared to conventional photometry by gold nanoparticle tagging and horseradish peroxidase, respectively. Detection limits of the assay were optimized to 0.003 μg L-1, and the quantification range was 0.01–1 μg L-1 for both methods. For LA-ICP-MS-based DNA microarray detection, gold nanoparticle tags were specifically introduced via a streptavidin-biotin linkage. In immunohistochemistry (IHC), up to 20 tumor markers are routinely evaluated for one patient and thus, a common analysis results in a series of time consuming staining procedures. Hence, LA-ICP- MS was elaborated as a detection tool for a novel, multiplexed IHC analysis of tissue sections. Different lanthanides were employed for the simultaneous detection of up to three tumor markers (Her 2, CK 7, and MUC 1) in a breast cancer tissue. Additionally, iodine was employed as a labeling reagent, and a new LA-ICP-MS method for single cell and cell nucleus imaging was developed at 4 μm laser spot size. Iodine was also applied as a new internal standard for tissue samples. Moreover, Pt-protein complexes separated by an optimized 1D and 2D gel electrophoresis were analyzed by LA-ICP-MS. The high spatial resolution of this technique was further demonstrated in a current study of cisplatin toxicity and renal protective strategies in rat kidney tissue by detecting platinated proteins.