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Calculation of test load and load utilization of steel reinforced concrete columns in fire tests
(2026)
Calculating the test load is a key aspect of conducting column fire tests. The level of applied load affects the load-bearing and deformation behavior as well as the failure time of the structural element in a fire test. Therefore, the test load also influences the fire resistance classification of steel reinforced concrete columns. A literature review shows that there are significant differences in the methods used to calculate the test load. Furthermore, documentation of the methods used is often incomplete. This makes it difficult to trace and compare test results. This contribution analyzes and compares the various approaches to calculate the test load for fire tests of steel reinforced concrete columns, based on normative standards. It is focusing on evaluating the effects of different stress-strain models for concrete (parabola-rectangle diagram and parabolic approach) and the material strengths used (tabulated values according to Eurocode and experimentally determined values) on the load-bearing capacity at ambient temperatures and the derived test load. Recommendations are formulated based on comparative calculations, for a standard-compliant, transparent and practical determination of the test load that considers both safety-relevant and economic aspects.
In real fire scenarios, the mechanical and thermal boundary conditions typically differ significantly from those in prescriptive, single member fire tests. For example, interactions between a fire exposed steel reinforced concrete column and the entire building structure, as well as the resulting restraint effects, are not considered in standard fire tests. Using the substructure method, the behavior of a steel reinforced concrete column under fire exposure can be investigated while considering its interaction with the entire building structure. First, the stiffness of the surrounding structure must be identified, e.g., analytically or by numerically based approaches. The result is then used as input for the substructure method. In the presented study, a linear elastic spring is used to model the stiffness of the building. The interaction between the fire exposed column and the surrounding structure may have both positive and negative effects on the fire resistance of the tested structural element.
The use of carbon‑fibre‑reinforced polymer (CFRP) grids with high tensile strength and inherent corrosion resistance provides an alternative to conventional prestressing steel strands and allows for minimal concrete cover, enabling slender prestressed components. The research project CaPreFloor builds on this potential to develop a thin‑walled concrete floor system. However, such elements pose challenges regarding their structural behaviour at elevated temperatures. This contribution presents and discusses two relevant experimental investigations. First, flexural tests at elevated temperatures were performed on slender concrete beams reinforced with CFRP grids with different prestress levels to evaluate their load‑bearing capacity under thermal exposure. Two failure modes were identified, i.e., tensile rupture of the CFRP reinforcement occurred at high prestress levels, whereas bond failure between the concrete and CFRP reinforcement dominated at low prestress levels. Second, fire tests were conducted to assess the susceptibility to spalling and the effectiveness of mitigation strategies. The presence of the CFRP grid resulted in earlier spalling relative to the unreinforced specimen. To avoid spalling, two fire protection measures were examined: the application of an intumescent coating and the addition of PP fibres to the concrete mixture. While PP fibres successfully prevented spalling for both investigated CFRP grid types, the intumescent coating proved effective only for specimens reinforced with one of the grids used.
Der Forschungsbericht beschreibt die Entwicklung einer minimal-invasiven in situ Prüfmethode zur Bewertung der Wirksamkeit von reaktiven Brandschutzsystemen (RBS). Mit dieser Methode lässt sich die tatsächliche thermische Schutzwirkung von RBS an bestehenden Stahlkonstruktionen, die eine reale Bewitterung und Alterung durchlaufen haben, beurteilen. Diese Information kann für den Nachweis der Feuerwiderstandsdauer der Bestandkonstruktion verwendet werden.
Das im Projekt entwickelte Prüfgerät (Prototyp) ermöglicht es, vor Ort am Bauwerk eine lokal begrenzte Bauteilfläche einer definierten Temperatureinwirkung auszusetzen. Grundlage des Prüfszenarios ist die einseitige Erwärmung eines Teilbereiches von etwa 100 x 100 mm² am Steg eines I- oder H-Profils. Eine im Prototyp integrierte elektrische Aufheizvorrichtung liefert einen homogenen und reproduzierbaren Energieeintrag. Das gewählte Heizregime entspricht einer 30-minütigen Temperaturbeanspruchung analog der Einheits-Temperaturzeitkurve (ETK). Als Referenz dienten Ergebnisse aus Brandversuchen am Kleinprüfstand nach DIN 4102-8 an Stahlplatten ohne und mit RBS. Darüber hinaus erfasst ein Laser-Distanzsensor am Prototyp die Aufschäumhöhe des RBS während des Versuchs. Zur Bewertung der brandschutztechnischen Wirksamkeit des RBS werden die Temperatur der Heizelemente, die Stahltemperatur im Zentrum der Prüffläche sowie die Schaumhöhe des RBS kontinuierlich gemessen und aufgezeichnet. Die entsprechenden Thermoelemente werden vorab am zu prüfenden Bauteil angebracht. Durch den kompakten Aufbau sowie die Versorgung des Prototyps mit Standardmedien (16A Starkstrom, Druckluft) lässt sich die in situ Prüfmethode flexibel anwenden. Nach Abschluss des Versuchs muss das RBS lediglich im unmittelbar geprüften Bereich und ggf. lokal angrenzend erneuert werden. Um eine Schädigung und den Festigkeitsminderung der Stahlkonstruktion auszuschließen, wird die Prüfung bei Erreichen einen Stahltemperatur von 400 °C beendet. Dieser Temperaturbereich genügt jedoch, um die Reaktion des RBS auszulösen und seine Wirksamkeit zu beurteilen.
Die entwickelte in situ Prüfung wurde im Brandlabor der BAM an verschiedenen Probekörpergeometrien erprobt. Dazu gehörten Stahlplatten mit einer Dicke von 5, 6 und 10 mm als auch Walzprofile mit offenem Querschnitt (IPE 220 und HEB 260). Die Probekörper wurden sowohl unbeschichtet als auch mit einem wasserbasierten RBS in Trockenschichtdicken von 0,25 und 0,50 mm untersucht. In diesem Zusammenhang wurde auch der Einfluss der Wärmeleitung innerhalb der Prüfkörper untersucht. In allen Versuchen konnte die für RBS typische Reaktion und Aufschäumung erzielt werden. Die Wirksamkeit des RBS zeigte sich zudem anhand der reduzierten Erwärmungs-geschwindigkeit der Stahlbauteile.
Auf Grundlage der Laborerfahrungen konnte die in situ Prüfung auch an einer real gealterten Bestandskonstruktion in einer Logistikhalle erfolgreich angewendet werden. Das Beispiel hat gezeigt, dass die an der BAM entwickelte Methode eine zuverlässige Bewertung der Wirksamkeit von RBS direkt am Bauwerk ermöglicht. Die denkbaren Anwendungs-szenarien der in situ Methode sind im Forschungsbericht beschrieben. Die Nachweis-möglichkeiten ergeben sich in Abhängigkeit der vorliegenden Informationen über das im Bestand applizierte RBS.
In real fire scenarios, the mechanical and thermal boundary conditions typically differ significantly from those in prescriptive, single member fire tests. For example, interactions between a fire exposed steel reinforced concrete column and the entire building structure, as well as the resulting restraint effects, are not considered in standard fire tests. Using the substructure method, the behavior of a steel reinforced concrete column under fire exposure can be investigated while considering its interaction with the entire building structure. First, the stiffness of the surrounding structure must be identified, e.g., analytically or by numerically based approaches. The result is then used as input for the substructure method. In the presented study, a linear elastic spring is used to model the stiffness of the building. The interaction between the fire exposed column and the surrounding structure may have both positive and negative effects on the fire resistance of the tested structural element.
Intumescent coatings are commonly used in civil engineering to increase the fire resistance of steel structures. In case of a fire, the coating reacts and forms a thermally protective char around the steel member. Thus, the heating of the steel is significantly delayed, and as a result, the fire resistance can be increased. At BAM a minimally invasive in situ test procedure was developed to assess the fire resistance of existing steel structures with applied intumescent coating. Based on the information obtained from these fire tests, numerical simulations were carried out to characterise the thermal protection properties of the intumescent coating using a reverse approach. The paper briefly presents existing numerical approaches from the literature and subsequently introduces the numerical models developed by the authors of this paper. The thermal conductivity of the intumescent coating identified using the numerical simulation resulted in a good accordance of the numerically calculated and experimentally measured steel temperatures. Using the identified material parameter set of the intumescent coating the steel temperatures of a coated structural steel member can be estimated, allowing a prediction of the corresponding fire resistance.
Intumescent coatings are commonly used in civil engineering to increase the fire resistance of steel structures. In case of a fire, the coating reacts and forms a thermally protective char around the steel member. Thus, the heating of the steel is significantly delayed, and as a result, the fire resistance can be increased. At BAM a minimally invasive in situ test procedure was developed to assess the fire resistance of existing steel structures with applied intumescent coating. Based on the information obtained from these fire tests, numerical simulations were carried out to characterise the thermal protection properties of the intumescent coating using a reverse approach. The paper briefly presents existing numerical approaches from the literature and subsequently introduces the numerical models developed by the authors of this paper. The thermal conductivity of the intumescent coating identified using the numerical simulation resulted in a good accordance of the numerically calculated and experimentally measured steel temperatures. Using the identified material parameter set of the intumescent coating the steel temperatures of a coated structural steel member can be estimated, allowing a prediction of the corresponding fire resistance.
The presented study investigates the fire performance of massive granite columns intended as loadbearing elements in a medium rise building. While granite is well understood from a rock engineering perspective, its structural behaviour in case of fire is insufficiently understood. Element-level tests with thermal exposure according to ISO 834 revealed spalling and macro-cracking. Therefore, natural fire scenarios were simulated using FDS, accounting for travelling fires and sprinkler activation. The derived envelope temperature curve was applied in full-scale fire tests on loaded granite columns. The tests showed a thermal expansion of the columns and consistent crack formation in specimens subjected to higher loads. Despite these thermomechanical effects, all specimen sustained the required 60 minutes of natural fire exposure and maintained the required loadbearing capacity during cooling. Columns loaded to the expected loads in case of fifire developed a full height vertical crack after approximately 35 minutes. Thermomechanical finite element simulations using Abaqus reproduced the crack formation and showed that combined thermal gradients and the detailing of the load introduction zone led to the observed behaviour.
The presented study investigates the fire performance of massive granite columns intended as loadbearing elements in a medium rise building. While granite is well understood from a rock engineering perspective, its structural behaviour in case of fire is insufficiently understood. Element-level tests with thermal exposure according to ISO 834 revealed spalling and macro-cracking. Therefore, natural fire scenarios were simulated using FDS, accounting for travelling fires and sprinkler activation. The derived envelope temperature curve was applied in full-scale fire tests on loaded granite columns. The tests showed a thermal expansion of the columns and consistent crack formation in specimens subjected to higher loads. Despite these thermomechanical effects, all specimen sustained the required 60 minutes of natural fire exposure and maintained the required loadbearing capacity during cooling. Columns loaded to the expected loads in case of fifire developed a full height vertical crack after approximately 35 minutes. Thermomechanical finite element simulations using Abaqus reproduced the crack formation and showed that combined thermal gradients and the detailing of the load introduction zone led to the observed behaviour.
As the energy sector undergoes decarbonization, liquefied hydrogen is becoming increasingly important. In addition to large-scale energy imports, it is also well-suited as a fuel for aircraft and, for example, heavy-duty and long-haul road transport applications. A key challenge is the long-term thermal insulation of LH2, which is achieved through a combination of vacuum and multilayer insulation systems. Despite their proven use, there are still gaps in the knowledge of how such systems behave in accident scenarios - including fires - particularly in road transport. The presentation introduces experimental investigations of realistic fire scenarios for commercial vehicles, analyses heat transfer between the fire and a tank, and derives approaches for defining design fires applicable for the approval of tanks. The results contribute to improving the safety, design, and emergency assessment of cryogenic storage systems.