5 Werkstofftechnik
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Eingeladener Vortrag
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The Topic of the presentationis a discussion on defects which can cause failure in cyclically loaded metallic components. Although also touching Features such as material defects such as pores or micro-shrinkages, etc. and geometric defects such as surface roughness and secondary notches (which are not considered in the design process) which origin in manufacturing, and others the presentation concentrates on non-metallic inclusions. It is prefaced by an introduction to the life cycle of a fatigue crack from initiation up to fracture. Special emphasis is put on the fact that only cracks which are not arrested during one of their distinct Propagation stages can grow to a critical size.
Die warmfeste austenitische Gusseisenlegierung EN-GJSA-XNiSiCr35-5-2 (häufig auch als Ni-Resist D-5S bezeichnet) wurde hinsichtlich ihres mechanischen Verhal-tens bei hoher Temperatur charakterisiert. Dazu wurden (isotherme) niederzyklische (LCF-) und (nicht-isotherme) thermomechanische Ermüdungsversuche (TMF) zwischen Raumtemperatur und 900 °C durchgeführt. Diese Ergebnisse dienten (zu-sammen mit weiteren Versuchsdaten) der Kalibrierung werkstoffmechanischer Modelle. Bei den höchsten Prüftemperaturen wurde Schädigung in Form von Kriechen beobachtet und metallographisch dokumentiert.
Common air-coupled transducers for non-destructive testing consist of a piezocomposite material and several matching layers. Better acoustical matching to air is achieved by transducers based on charged cellular polypropylene (PP). This material has about hundred times lower acoustic impedance than any piezocomposite, having about the same piezoelectric coefficient. The piezoelectric properties of cellular PP are caused by the polarization of air cells. Alternatively, a ferroelectret receiver can be understood as a capacitive microphone with internal polarization creating permanent internal voltage. The sensitivity of the receiver can be increased by applying additional bias voltage. We present an ultrasonic receiver based on cellular PP including a high-voltage module providing bias voltage up to 2 kV. The application of bias voltage increased the signal by 12 to 15 dB with only 1 dB increase of the noise.
This receiver was combined with a cellular PP transmitter in through transmission to inspect several test specimens consisting of glass-fiber-reinforced polymer face sheets and a porous closed-cell PVC core. These test specimens were inspected before and after load. Fatigue cracks in the porous PVC core and some fatigue damage in the face sheets were detected. These test specimens were originally developed to emulate a rotor blade segment of a wind power plant. Similar composite materials are used in lightweight aircrafts for the general aviation. The other inspected test specimen was a composite consisted of glass-fiber-reinforced polymer face sheets and a wooden core. The structure of the wooden core could be detected only with cellular PP transducers, while commercial air-coupled transducers lacked the necessary sensitivity. Measured on a 4-mm thick carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer plate, cellular PP transducers with additional bias voltage achieved a 32 dB higher signal-to-noise ratio than commercial air-coupled transducers.
Glass powders are promising candidates for manufacturing a broad diversity of sintered materials like sintered glass-ceramics, glass matrix composites or glass bonded ceramics with properties and complex shape. Powder processing, however, can substantially affect sinterability, e.g. by promoting surface crystallization. On the other hand, densification can be hindered by gas bubble formation for slow crystallizing glass powders. Against this background, we studied sintering and foaming of silicate glass powders with different crystallization tendency for wet milling and dry milling in air, Ar, N2, and CO2 by means of heating microscopy, DTA, Vacuum Hot Extraction (VHE), SEM, IR spectroscopy, XPS, and ToF-SIMS. In any case, foaming activity increased significantly with progressive milling. For moderately milled glass powders, subsequent storage in air could also promote foaming. Contrarily, foaming could be substantially reduced by milling in water and 10 wt% HCl. Although all powder compacts were uniaxially pressed and sintered in air, foaming was significantly affected by different milling atmosphere and was found most pronounced for milling in CO2 atmosphere. Conformingly, VHE studies revealed that foaming is mainly driven by carbonaceous species, even for powders milled in other gases. Current results of this study thus indicate that foaming is caused by carbonaceous species trapped on the glass powder surface.
In powder-based Additive Manufacturing (AM) processes, an object is produced by successively depositing thin layers of a powder material and by inscribing the cross section of the object in each layer. The main methods to inscribe a layer are by binder jetting (also known as powder 3D printing) or by selective laser sintering/melting (SLS/SLM).
Powder-based AM processes have found wide application for several metallic, polymeric and also ceramic materials, due to their advantages in combining flexibility, easy upscaling and (often) good material properties of their products.
The deposition of homogeneous layers is key to the reproducibility of these processes and has a direct influence on the quality of the final parts. Accordingly, powder properties such as particle size distribution, shape, roughness and process related properties such as powder flowability and packing density need to be carefully evaluated.
Due to these requirements, these processes have been so far precluded to find commercial use for certain applications. In the following, two outstanding cases will be presented.
A first example is that powder-based AM processes are widely used for many metallic and polymeric materials, but they find no commercial application for most technical ceramics.
This seemingly contradicting observation is explained by the fact that in powder based AM, a dry flowable powder needs to be used. The processing of technical ceramics in fact typically requires very fine and poorly flowable powder, which makes them not suitable for the standard processes. There have been several approaches to adapt the raw materials to the process (e.g. by granulation), but in order to maintain the superior properties of technical ceramics it seems necessary to follow the opposite approach and adapt the process to the raw materials instead.
This was the motivation for developing the Layerwise Slurry Deposition (LSD), an innovative process for the deposition of powder layers with a high packing density. In the LSD process, a ceramic slurry is deposited to form thin powder layers, rather than using a dry powder. This allows achieving high packing density (55-60%) in the layers after drying. It is also important, that standard ceramic raw materials can be used. When coupled with a printing head or with a laser source, the LSD enables novel AM technologies which are similar to 3D printing or selective laser sintering, but taking advantage of having a highly dense powder bed.
The LSD -3D printing, in particular, offers the potential of producing large (> 100 mm) and high quality ceramic parts, with microstructure and properties similar to traditional processing. Moreover, due to the compact powder bed, no support structures are required for fixation of the part in the printing process.
Figure 1 shows the schematics of the working principle of the LSD-3D print and illustrates some examples of the resolution and features achievable.
The second outstanding case here described is the application of powder-based AM in environments with reduced or zero gravity. The vision is to be able to produce repair parts, tools and other objects during a space mission, such as on the International Space Station (ISS), without the need of delivering such parts from Earth or carrying them during the mission. AM technologies are also envisioned to play an important role even for future missions to bring mankind to colonize other planets, be it on Mars or on the Moon. In this situation, reduced gravity is also experienced (the gravitational acceleration is 0.16 g on the Moon and 0.38 g on Mars).
These environments cause the use of AM powder technologies to be very problematic: the powder layers need to be stabilized in order to avoid dispersion of the particles in the chamber. This is impossible for standard AM powder deposition systems, which rely on gravitation to spread the powder.
Also in this case, an innovative approach has been implemented to face this technological challenge. The application of a gas flow through a powder has a very strong effect on its flowability, by generating a force on each particle, which is following the gas flow field. This principle can be applied in a simple setup such as the one shown in Figure 2.
In this setup, the gas flow causes an average pressure on the powder bed in direction of the arrows, generating a stabilizing effect which acts in the same direction of the gravitational force. This effect can be used in addition to normal gravity on Earth to achieve a better stabilization of 3D printed parts in the powder bed. In this case, even a significant increase of packing density of the powder was measured, compared to the same experimental setup without gas flow. This is due to the fact that the force on each single particle follows the gas flow field, which is guiding the particles to settle between the pores of the powder bed, thus achieving an efficient packing.
The same principle can be applied in absence of gravitation, where the gas flow acts to stabilize the powder layers. It has been shown that ceramic powder could be deposited in layers and laser sintered in µ-gravity conditions during a DLR (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt) campaign of parabolic flights, as shown in Figure 2. A follow-up campaign is dedicated to the deposition of metallic (stainless steel) powder in inert atmosphere and to study the effects of laser melting in µ-gravity.
In conclusion, the description of these two example cases shows how the development of novel technological processes can address some of the limitations of standard powder-based AM, in order to enable the use of new materials, such as technical ceramics, or to tackle the challenges of AM in space.
Powder bed -based technologies are amongst the most successful Additive Manufacturing (AM) techniques. "Selective laser sintering/melting" (SLS/SLM) and "binder jetting 3D printing" (3DP) especially are leading AM technologies for metals and polymers, thanks to their high productivity and scalability. In this context, the "layerwise slurry deposition" (LSD) has been developed as a layer deposition method which enables the use of SLS/SLM and 3DP technologies for advanced ceramic materials. LSD consists in the layer-by-layer deposition of a ceramic slurry by means of a doctor blade. Each layer is deposited and dried to achieve a highly packed powder layer, which can be used for SLM or for 3DP. This technique offers high flexibility in the ceramic feedstock used, especially concerning material and particle size, and is capable of producing parts with physical and mechanical properties comparable to traditionally shaped parts. In this presentation, the LSD technique will be introduced and several examples of application to porcelain, SiC and alumina products will be reported.
Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) is identified as an excellent technology to reach the target of CO2 reduction. However, the safety issue and cost effectiveness hinder the future of CCS. For the reliability and safety issues of injection wells the corrosion resistance of the materials used needs to be determined.
In this study, representative low cost materials including carbon steel 1.8977 and low alloyed steel 1.7225 were embedded in cement to mimic the realistic casing-cement interface. Electrochemical studies were carried out using these metal-cement specimens in comparison with those made of metal only in CO2 saturated synthetic aquifer fluid, at 333 K, to reveal the effect of cement on the steel performance. The results showed the protective effect of cement on the performance of pipeline metals during polarisation process. However, the corrosion current density was high in all cases, with and without cement, indicating that the corrosion resistance of these materials is low. This conclusion was supported by the surface analysis of the polarized specimens, which revealed both homogenous and pitting corrosions. Furthermore, to reveal the possible protective performance of FeCO3, the pipeline steels were pre-carbonated and then tested in the same condition as freshly polished specimens.
Entwickelt wurde eine mehrstufige Fertigungstechnologie (Schruppen, Schlichten, Trennschnitt) zur Herstellung keramischer Federn aus gesinterten Hohlzylindern. Durch Optimierung von Maschinenparametern, Schleifscheiben sowie Werkstück- und Werkzeugaufnahmen ist es gelungen, Federn aus Hochleistungskeramik (Aluminiumoxid und Zirkonoxid) mit hoher Kanten- und Oberflächenqualität reproduzierbar herzustellen. Eine hohe Variabilität bezüglich Außen- und Innendurchmesser, Steigung, Windungsquerschnitt und Abstand zwischen den Windungen ermöglicht es, die Federkonstante über drei Größenordnungen zu variieren.
Untersucht wurden Federstabilität und Spannungs-Dehnungs-Verhalten unter konstanter und zyklischer Druckbelastung sowie die thermomechanische Stabilität der Keramikfedern. Aluminiumoxid-Federn können bis etwa 800°C, Zirkonoxid-Federn bis etwa 600°C ohne bleibende geometrische Verformung eingesetzt werden.
Unter konstanter Spannung zeigen Federn aus Y-stabilisiertem TZP (Zirkonoxid)-Werkstoffen, von anderen Keramikwerkstoffen abweichend, bei Raumtemperatur eine zeitabhängige, elastische, Verformung (Superelastizität), die nach Entlastung über einen Zeitraum von mehreren Stunden reversibel verläuft. Als Ursache wird eine spannungsinduzierte reversible Phasenumwandlung zwischen austenitischer (tetragonales ZrO2) und martensitischer (monoklines ZrO2) Phase postuliert.
Diskutiert wird das Anwendungspotenzial der entwickelten Federn für kapazitive keramische Federsensoren für Gravimeter und Wägetechnik.
The influence of heat treatment and creep loading on the microstructure of an Al-Cu-Li alloy was investigated. Especially the formation of different precipitates (T1 and Theta') were characterized and the microstructural changes under different ageing conditions (with and without external strain) were investigated to determine the effect od stress on the ageing process.
High-performance composites, including glass-fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) materials, are favored as a construction material for wind turbine rotor blades due to their high specific strength and stiffness properties. During the manufacturing process, however, imperfections are often introduced, then further propagated due to harsh environmental conditions and a variety of loads. This leads to failure significantly before their projected 20-year lifespan. As replacement of entire blades can be a costly potential outcome, localized repair of the damaged region to restore structural integrity and thus lengthen its lifespan has become an important issue in recent years. Rotor blades are often repaired using a common technique for composite laminates: adhesively bonded structural repair patches. These methods involve replacing the lost load path with a new material that is joined to the parent structure, and include scarf or plug repairs. However, there currently do not exist any standardized repair procedures for wind turbine rotor blades, as comparisons of blade properties repaired with the existing methods have not been studied in depth. Namely, there is a lack of understanding about the effects of various repair methods on the fatigue life of the shells of rotor blades. This study therefore aims to begin to fill this knowledge gap by testing the influence of different repair patches on the blades’ mechanical properties. Manufactured with the vacuum-assisted resin infusion process, the test specimens are produced as a curved structure with GFRP sandwiching a polyvinyl chloride foam core to best represent a portion of a rotor blade shell. Scarf repairs are then introduced with varying layup techniques, and material properties are examined with cyclical fatigue tests. Crack growth and development is monitored during fatigue testing by various non-destructive testing methods, including passive thermography with an infrared camera system, and a 3D deformation analysis system with ARAMIS. Large deformation fields and detection of in- and out-of-plane deformations is thus possible in-situ. The mechanical behavior and development of defects in the various repaired specimens is compared to each other as well as to reference test specimens with no repair patches. In-situ test data is combined with further non-destructive testing methods, including laminography, and active thermography, to develop a robust understanding of the effects of repair concepts.
Der Vortrag zeigt zwei Möglichkeiten zur Verbesserung der VSSA-Screening-Methode zur Identifizierung von Nanopulvern auf. Bisher ist das Verfahren nur für monodisperse Partikel mit idealer Kugelform valide. Die Verteilungsbreite der Partikelgröße soll durch die Nutzung des Modells einer logarithmischen Normalverteilung implementiert werden. Die Abweichung der gemessenen Partikel von einer idealen Kugel in Sphärizität, Rundheit und Rauigkeit sind über einen Morphologiefaktor MF zu berücksichtigen. An einem konkreten Beispiel werden Auswirkungen der Implementierungen rechnerisch dargestellt und mit dem bisherigen Verfahren verglichen.
Ni-base superalloy single crystals have been used in turbine blades for hot sections of gas turbines for over four decades. In order to increase the efficiency of the turbines, a continuous increase in the inlet temperature of combustion gases into the turbine has driven the design of turbine blades to complicated shapes and the presence of a complex pattern of cooling channels. These three-dimensional shapes, together with the inhomogeneous distribution of stresses along the blade, induce an also complicated triaxial stress state, which does not compare to uniaxial tests that are performed to characterize high temperature properties such as creep. A round notch on a test piece represents a simple configuration that generates a quasi-isostatic stress state across the notch. In the present contribution, the effect of a sharp round notch on the microstructural micromechanisms within the notched region cylindrical bars, loaded along [001] at 1020 °C and 160 MPa net stress, is studied. To this end, a series of interrupted creep tests is conducted on plain and notched bars and the microstructure is compared. Results are discussed in terms of degree microstructural coarsening, and dislocation activity. The effect of notch generation via grinding is also discussed in these terms. The presence of carbides evolving in from residual carbon is also shown and discussed. .Funding by the German Research Association (DFG) [grant number AG 191/1] is acknowledge
Hochleistungsverbundwerkstoffe, bzw. Glasfaser-Kunststoff-Verbunde (GFK), haben sich als Leichtbauwerkstoffe für Leichtflugzeuge und Rotorblätter von Windkraftanlagen etabliert. Die hohe spezifische Festigkeit und Steifigkeit qualifizieren sie besonders für diese Anwendung. Während der Fertigung werden Imperfektionen häufig in die Blattschalen eingebracht. Durch Witterungseinflüsse kommt es zum Schadensfortschritt. Infolgedessen treten Schäden in der Blattschale, die den sicheren Betrieb gefährden können, weit vor der projektierten Lebensdauer von 20 Jahren auf. Da der Austausch von ganzen Blättern sehr kostintensiv ist, ist eine lokale Reparatur des geschädigten Bereichs zur Wiederherstellung der strukturellen Integrität, viel preisgünstiger. Die Reparatur von Rotorblättern ist in den letzten Jahren zu einem wichtigen Thema geworden. Derzeit werden verschiedenste Reparaturkonzepte angewendet. Eine einheitliche Reparaturvorgabe gibt es bisher nicht. Die Auswirkungen der angewendeten Reparaturkonzepte auf die Betriebsfestigkeit der Reparaturstelle sind weitestgehend unbekannt und sollen deshalb in diesem Projekt untersucht werden. Gekrümmte Voll-Laminat sowie Sandwich Prüfkörper werden mit dem Vacuum-Assisted-Resin-Infusion-Prozess (VARI) produziert. Um einen Teil einer Rotorblattschale darzustellen, sind sie als GFK aufgebaut, beziehungsweise die Sandwich Strukturen mit einem Polyvinylchlorid-Schaumkern (PVC) Kern, wie im Original. Schalenreparaturen in verschiedenen Layup-Techniken und Geometrie werden eingebracht und die Materialeigenschaften mit zyklischen Ermüdungstests untersucht. Im Projekt werden ideal im Labor erzeugte Reparaturstellen mit in der Praxis angewendeten Ausführungstechniken eines Industriepartners experimentell verglichen. Für die in-situ Detektion der Schadensentwicklung während des Ermüdungsversuches kommt ein kombiniertes Felddehnungs- und Thermografie-Kamerasystem zum Einsatz. Das mechanische Verhalten und die Schadensentwicklung in den verschiedenen reparierten Prüfkörper wird miteinander sowie mit den Referenzproben ohne Reparaturstellen verglichen. Zudem wird in numerischen Modellen für die verschiedenen Reparaturtechniken eine Spannungsanalyse durchgeführt um hinsichtlich der Betriebsbeanspruchung eine Bewertung angeben zu können.
The creep behavior of single-crystals of the nickel-base superalloy CMSX-4 was investigated at 1288°C, which is the temperature of the hot isostatic pressing (HIP) treatment applied to this superalloy in the industry. It was found that at this super-solvus temperature, where no Gamma’-strengthening occurs, the superalloy is very soft and rapidly deforms under stresses between 4 and 16 MPa. The creep resistance was found to be very anisotropic, e.g. the creep rate of [001] crystals was about 11 times higher than that of a [111] crystal. The specimens of different orientations also showed a very different necking behavior. The reduction of the cross-section area psi of [001] crystals reached nearly 100%, while for a [111] crystal psi=62%. The EBSD analysis of deformed specimens showed that despite such a large local strain the [001] crystals didn’t not recrystallize, while a less deformed [111] crystal totally recrystallized within the necking zone. From the shape of deformed specimens and TEM investigations it was concluded that the main strain contribution resulted from <011> {111} octahedral slip.
Additive Manufacturing (AM) through the Selective Laser Melting (SLM) route offers ample scope for producing geometrically complex parts compared to the conventional subtractive manufacturing strategies. Nevertheless, the residual stresses which develop during the fabrication can limit application of the SLM components by reducing the load bearing capacity and by inducing unwanted distortion, depending on the boundary conditions specified during manufacturing. The present study aims at characterizing the residual stress states in the SLM parts using different diffraction methods. The material used is the nickel based superalloy Inconel 718. Microstructure as well as the surface and bulk residual stresses were characterized.
For the residual stress analysis, X-ray, synchrotron and neutron diffraction methods were used. The measurements were performed at BAM, at the EDDI beamline of -BESSY II synchrotronand the E3 line -BER II neutron reactor- of the Helmholtz-Zentrum für Materialien und Energie (HZB) Berlin. The results reveal significant differences in the residual stress states for the different characterization techniques employed, which indicates the dependence of the residual state on the penetration depth in the sample. For the surface residual stresses, longitudinal and transverse stress components from X-ray and synchrotron agree well and the obtained values were around the yield strength of the material. Furthermore, synchrotron mapping disclosed gradients along the width and length of the sample for the longitudinal and transverse stress components. On the other hand, lower residual stresses were found in the bulk of the material measured using neutron diffraction. The longitudinal component was tensile and decreased towards the boundary of the sample. In contrast, the normal component was nearly constant and compressive in nature. The transversal component was almost negligible. The results indicate that a stress re-distribution takes place during the deposition of the consecutive layers. Further investigations are planned to study the phenomenon in detail.
Efficient energy provision using fuel cells requires effective hydrogen storage capacities. Glass is a material of low intrinsic hydrogen permeability and is therefore a promising material for hydrogen storage containers or diffusion barriers. Pioneer work on oxidic glasses seems to indicate a correlation between glass composition and hydrogen permeation, which was mainly derived from the behavior of silica glass. In this study, we focus on the relationship between topologic (free volume; network polymerization) and thermodynamic (configurational entropy) glass parameters. Experiments were performed well below the glass transition temperature, which excludes significant structural relaxation and chemical dissolution of hydrogen. The compositional dependence of seven glasses on the SiO2-NaAlO2 join pointed out that in fully polymerized glasses the H2 permeability cannot be solely derived from the total free volume of the glass structure. Hence, evidence is provided that the size distribution of free volume contributes to hydrogen diffusion and solubility. Additionally, results indicate that hydrogen permeability of the glasses is affected by the configurational heat capacity ΔCp at Tg.