5 Werkstofftechnik
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Im Rahmen der Erstellung einer fraktographischen online-Datenbank an der BAM wurden systematisch Schwingversuche an einem Sinterstahl vorgenommen, dessen Sinterdichte variiert wurde. Die erzeugten Bruchflächen wurden analysiert, mit der Literatur verglichen und Datensätze in die Datenbank eingefügt.
The influence of heat treatment and creep loading on the microstructure of an Al-Cu-Li alloy was investigated. Especially the formation of different precipitates (T1 and Theta') were characterized and the microstructural changes under different ageing conditions (with and without external strain) were investigated to determine the effect od stress on the ageing process.
The influence of heat treatment and creep loading on the microstructure of an Al-Cu-Li alloy was investigated. Especially the formation of different precipitates (T1 and Theta') were characterized and the microstructural changes under different ageing conditions (with and without external strain) were investigated to determine the effect od stress on the ageing process.
A key limitation of the most constitutive models that reproduce a Degradation of quasi-brittle materials is that they generally do not address issues related to fatigue. One reason is the huge computational costs to resolve each load cycle on the structural level. The goal of this paper is the development of a temporal Integration scheme, which significantly increases the computational efficiency of the finite element method in comparison to conventional temporal integrations.
The essential constituent of the fatigue model is an implicit gradient-enhanced formulation of the damage rate. The evolution of the field variables is computed as amultiscale Fourier series in time.On a microchronological scale attributed to single cycles, the initial boundary value problem is approximated by linear BVPs with respect to the Fourier coefficients. Using the adaptive cycle jump concept, the obtained damage rates are transferred to a coarsermacrochronological scale associated with the duration of material deterioration. The performance of the developedmethod is hence improved due to an efficient numerical treatment of the microchronological problem in combination with the cycle jump technique on the macrochronological scale. Validation examples demonstrate the convergence of the obtained solutions to the reference simulations while significantly reducing the computational costs.
The durability of concrete structures and its performance over the lifetime is strongly influenced by many interacting phenomena such as e.g. mechanical degradation due to fatigue loading, loss of prestress, degradation due to chemical reactions or creep and shrinkage. Failure due to cyclic loading is generally not instantaneous, but characterized by a steady damage accumulation.
Many constitutive models for concrete are currently available, which are applicable for specific loading regimes, different time scales and different resolution scales. A key limitation is that the models often do not address issues related to fatigue on a structural level. Very few models can be found in the literature that reproduce deterioration of concrete under repeated loading-unloading cycles.
The objective of this paper is the presentation of numerical methods for the simulation of concrete under fatigue loading using a temporal multiscale method.
First, a continuum damage model for concrete is developed with a focus on fatigue under compressive stresses. This includes the possibility to model stress redistributions and capture size effects. In contrast to cycle based approaches, where damage is accumulated based on the number of full stress cycles, a strain based approach is developed that can capture cyclic degradation under variable loading cycles including different amplitudes and loading frequencies. Second, a multiscale approach in time is presented to enable structural computations of fatigue failure with a reduced computational effort. The damage rate within the short time scale corresponding to a single cycle is computed based on a Fourier based approach. This evolution equation is then solved on the long time scale using different time integration schemes.
Lifetime aspects including fatigue failure of concrete structures were traditionally only of minor importance. Because of the growing interest in maxing out the capacities of concrete, its fatigue failure under compression has become an issue. A variety of interacting phenomena such as e.g. loss of prestress, degradation due to chemical reactions or creep and shrinkage influence the fatigue resistance. Failure due to cyclic loads is generally not instantaneous, but characterized by a steady damage accumulation. Therefore, a reliable numerical model to predict the performance of concrete over its lifetime is required, which accurately captures order effects and full three-dimensional stress states.
Many constitutive models for concrete are currently available, which are applicable for specific loading regimes, different time scales and different resolution scales.
However, a key limitation of those models is that they generally do not address issues related to fatigue on a structural level. Very few models can be found in the literature that reproduce deterioration of concrete under repeated loading-unloading cycles. This is due to the computational effort necessary to explicitly resolve every cycle which exceeds the currently available computational resources. The limitation can only be overcome by the application of multiscale methods in time.
The objective of the paper is the development of numerical methods for the simulation of concrete under fatigue loading using temporal multiscale methods.
First, a continuum damage model for concrete is developed with a focus on fatigue under compressive stresses [1]. This includes the possibility to model stress redistributions and capture size effects. In contrast to cycle based approaches, where damage is accumulated based on the number of full stress cycles, a strain based approach is developed that can capture cyclic degradation under variable loading cycles including different amplitudes and loading frequencies. The model is designed to represent failure under static loading as a particular case of fatigue failure after a single loading cycle. As a consequence, most of the material parameters can be deduced from static tests. Only a limit set of additional constitutive parameters is required to accurately describe the evolution under fatigue loading. Another advantage of the proposed model is the possibility to directly incorporate other multi-physics effects such as creep and shrinkage or thermal loading on the constitutive level.
Second, a multiscale approach in time is presented to enable structural computations of fatigue failure with a reduced computational effort. The damage rate within the short time scale corresponding to a single cycle is computed based on a Fourier based approach [2]. This evolution equation is then solved on the long time scale using different implicit and explicit time integration schemes. Their performance and some limitations for specific loading regimes is discussed.
Finally, the developed methods will be validated and compared to experimental data.
[1] Vitaliy Kindrachuk, Marc Thiele, Jörg F. Unger. Constitutive modeling of creep-fatigue interaction for normal strength concrete under compression, International Journal of Fatigue, 78:81-94, 2015
[2] Vitaliy Kindrachuk, Jörg F. Unger. A Fourier transformation-based temporal integration scheme for viscoplastic solids subjected to fatigue deterioration, International Journal of Fatigue, 100:215-228, 2017
The methods of computational damage mechanics are well-established for the description of degradation of materials under monotone loading. An extension to structural damage induced by cyclic loading is however significantly limited. This is due to enormous computational costs required to resolve each load cycle by conventional temporal incremental integration schemes while a typical fatigue loading history comprises between thousands and millions of cycles. Despite the permanent increase of computational resources and algorithmic performance, a successful approach is rather based on the development of novel multiscale in time integration schemes.
A Fourier transformation-based temporal integration (FTTI) is represented, which takes advantage of temporal scale separation incorporated into the cycle jump method. The response fields are approximated by a Fourier series whose coefficients undergo the evolution on a long-time scale. This is correlated with the evolution of the history variables, including damage, by means of the adaptive cycle jump method of various orders. The necessary extrapolation rates are obtained from the underlying solution of a short-time scale problem, which results from the oscillatory boundary condition and fulfills the global equilibrium of the Fourier coefficients. In this way, a remarkable speedup is achieved because the number of cycles to be fully integrated dramatically decreases.
The key idea behind the FTTI method is that the global in space equilibrium problem is linear since it is decoupled from the evolution equations. The latter are solved in the quadrature points under response fields prescribed throughout the whole load cycle. Consequently, integration of a single load cycle is much more efficient than the conventional single scale integration where the global equilibrium iteration and the local iteration of the evolution equations are coupled. This results in an additional speedup of the FTTI method.
The performance of the FTTI technique is demonstrated for two different constitutive behaviors: a viscoplastic model with a damage variable governed by the local equivalent viscoplastic strain; a quasi-brittle response where the damage variable is driven by a non-local equivalent strain. The latter is implicitly introduced as proposed by Peerlings. Both, the explicit and implicit extrapolation schemes are validated. The FTTI solutions agree very well with the reference cycle-by -cycle solutions, while significantly reducing the computational costs. The adaptive determination of the jump length can properly recognize the particular responses throughout the fatigue loading history (stationary fatigue, acceleration of fatigue damage when approaching failure) as well as stress redistribution phenomena.
Lifetime aspects including fatigue failure of concrete structures were traditionally only of minor importance. Because of the growing interest in maxing out the capacities of concrete, its fatigue failure under compression has become an issue. A variety of interacting phenomena such as e.g. loss of prestress, degradation due to chemical reactions or creep and shrinkage influence the fatigue resistance. Failure due to cyclic loads is generally not instantaneous, but characterized by a steady damage accumulation. Therefore, a reliable numerical model to predict the performance of concrete over its lifetime is required, which accurately captures order effects and full three-dimensional stress states.
Many constitutive models for concrete are currently available, which are applicable for specific loading regimes, different time scales and different resolution scales.
However, a key limitation of those models is that they generally do not address issues related to fatigue on a structural level. Very few models can be found in the literature that reproduce deterioration of concrete under repeated loading-unloading cycles. This is due to the computational effort necessary to explicitly resolve every cycle which exceeds the currently available computational resources. The limitation can only be overcome by the application of multiscale methods in time.
The objective of the paper is the development of numerical methods for the simulation of concrete under fatigue loading using temporal multiscale methods.
First, a continuum damage model for concrete is developed with a focus on fatigue under compressive stresses. This includes the possibility to model stress redistributions and capture size effects. In contrast to cycle based approaches, where damage is accumulated based on the number of full stress cycles, a strain based approach is developed that can capture cyclic degradation under variable loading cycles including different amplitudes and loading frequencies. The model is designed to represent failure under static loading as a particular case of fatigue failure after a single loading cycle. As a consequence, most of the material parameters can be deduced from static tests. Only a limit set of additional constitutive parameters is required to accurately describe the evolution under fatigue loading. Another advantage of the proposed model is the possibility to directly incorporate other multi-physics effects such as creep and shrinkage or thermal loading on the constitutive level.
Second, a multiscale approach in time is presented to enable structural computations of fatigue failure with a reduced computational effort. The damage rate within the short time scale corresponding to a single cycle is computed based on a Fourier based approach. This evolution equation is then solved on the long time scale using different implicit and explicit time integration schemes. Their performance and some limitations for specific loading regimes is discussed.
Finally, the developed methods will be validated and compared to experimental data.
A continuum damage model for concrete is developed with a focus on fatigue under compressive stresses. This includes the possibility to model stress redistributions and capture size effects. In contrast to cycle based approaches, where damage is accumulated based on the number of full stress cycles, a strain based approach is developed that can capture cyclic degradation under variable loading cycles including different amplitudes and loading frequencies. The model is designed to represent failure under static loading as a particular case of fatigue failure after a single loading cycle. As a consequence, most of the material parameters can be deduced from statictests. Only a limit set of additional constitutive parameters is required to accurately describe the evolution under fatigue loading. Another advantage of the proposed model is the possibility to directly incorporate other multi-physics effects such as creep and shrinkage or thermal loading on the constitutive level. A multiscale approach in time is presented to enable structural computations of fatigue failure with a reduced computational effort. The damage rate within the short time scale corresponding to a single cycle is computed based on a Fourier based approach. This evolution equation is then solved on the long time scale using different implicit and explicit time integration schemes. Their performance and some limitations for specific loading regimes is discussed.
A continuum damage model for concrete is developed with a focus on fatigue under compressive stresses. This includes the possibility to model stress redistributions and capture size effects. In contrast to cycle based approaches, where damage is accumulated based on the number of full stress cycles, a strain based approach is developed that can capture cyclic degradation under variable loading cycles including different amplitudes and loading frequencies. The model is designed to represent failure under static loading as a particular case of fatigue failure after a single loading cycle. As a consequence, most of the material parameters can be deduced from statictests. Only a limit set of additional constitutive parameters is required to accurately describe the evolution under fatigue loading. Another advantage of the proposed model is the possibility to directly incorporate other multi-physics effects such as creep and shrinkage or thermal loading on the constitutive level. A multiscale approach in time is presented to enable structural computations of fatigue failure with a reduced computational effort. The damage rate within the short time scale corresponding to a single cycle is computed based on a Fourier based approach. This evolution equation is then solved on the long time scale using different implicit and explicit time integration schemes. Their performance and some limitations for specific loading regimes is discussed.
Die warmfeste austenitische Gusseisenlegierung EN-GJSA-XNiSiCr35-5-2 (häufig auch als Ni-Resist D-5S bezeichnet) wurde hinsichtlich ihres mechanischen Verhal-tens bei hoher Temperatur charakterisiert. Dazu wurden (isotherme) niederzyklische (LCF-) und (nicht-isotherme) thermomechanische Ermüdungsversuche (TMF) zwischen Raumtemperatur und 900 °C durchgeführt. Diese Ergebnisse dienten (zu-sammen mit weiteren Versuchsdaten) der Kalibrierung werkstoffmechanischer Modelle. Bei den höchsten Prüftemperaturen wurde Schädigung in Form von Kriechen beobachtet und metallographisch dokumentiert.
Es wird eine neu entwickelte Methode zur Thermographiebasierten Rissmessung vorgestellt. Darüber hinaus wird eine numerische Vorarbeit präsentiert, die zeigt, dass anhand der gemeisamen Auswertung der Versuchsdaten aus unterschiedlicher Sensorik die Möglichkeit besteht, die unter Ermüdungsbelastung in Bohrlochproben auftretenden Risse in Geometriekategorien zu unterteilen.
Additive Manufacturing (AM) through the Selective Laser Melting (SLM) route offers ample scope for producing geometrically complex parts compared to the conventional subtractive manufacturing strategies. Nevertheless, the residual stresses which develop during the fabrication can limit application of the SLM components by reducing the load bearing capacity and by inducing unwanted distortion, depending on the boundary conditions specified during manufacturing. The present study aims at characterizing the residual stress states in the SLM parts using different diffraction methods. The material used is the nickel based superalloy Inconel 718. Microstructure as well as the surface and bulk residual stresses were characterized.
For the residual stress analysis, X-ray, synchrotron and neutron diffraction methods were used. The measurements were performed at BAM, at the EDDI beamline of -BESSY II synchrotronand the E3 line -BER II neutron reactor- of the Helmholtz-Zentrum für Materialien und Energie (HZB) Berlin. The results reveal significant differences in the residual stress states for the different characterization techniques employed, which indicates the dependence of the residual state on the penetration depth in the sample. For the surface residual stresses, longitudinal and transverse stress components from X-ray and synchrotron agree well and the obtained values were around the yield strength of the material. Furthermore, synchrotron mapping disclosed gradients along the width and length of the sample for the longitudinal and transverse stress components. On the other hand, lower residual stresses were found in the bulk of the material measured using neutron diffraction. The longitudinal component was tensile and decreased towards the boundary of the sample. In contrast, the normal component was nearly constant and compressive in nature. The transversal component was almost negligible. The results indicate that a stress re-distribution takes place during the deposition of the consecutive layers. Further investigations are planned to study the phenomenon in detail.
The age hardening response of a high-purity Al–4Cu–1Li–0.25Mn alloy (wt. %) during isothermal aging without and with an applied external load was investigated. Plate shaped nanometer size T1 (Al2CuLi) and θ′ (Al2Cu) hardening phases were formed. The precipitates were analyzed with respect to the development of their structure, size, number density, volume fraction and associated transformation strains by conducting transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) studies in combination with geometrical Phase analysis (GPA). Special attention was paid to the thickening of T1 phase. Two elementary types of single-layer T1 precipitate, one with a Li-rich (Type 1) and another with an Al-rich (Defect Type 1) central layer, were identified. The results show that the Defect Type 1 structure can act as a precursor for the Type 1 structure. The thickening of T1 precipitates occurs by alternative stacking of These two elementary structures. The thickening mechanism was analyzed based on the magnitude of strain associated with the precipitation transformation normal to its habit plane. Long-term aging and aging under load resulted in thicker and structurally defected T1 precipitates. Several types of defected precipitates were characterized and discussed. For θ′ precipitates, a ledge mechanism of
thickening was observed. Compared to the normal aging, an external load applied to the peak aged state leads to small variations in the average sizes and volume fractions of the precipitates.
Morphology and structure of TixOy nanoparticles generated by femtosecond laser ablation in water
(2018)
In this work femto-second pulsed laser ablation in liquid (PLAL) procedure for the generation of titanium oxide nanoparticles (NP) is reported with the purpose of understanding morphology and structure of the newly generated NPs. Ablation duration was varied for optimization of NP generation processes between 10 and 90 min. Surface morphology of NPs as well as their size and shape (distribution) were analysed by various complementary electron microscopy techniques, i.e. SEM, TSEM and TEM. The crystalline structure of titanium oxide particles was investigated byXRD(two instruments operated in different geometries) and HR-TEM. Concentration of generated titanium oxide NPs in liquid was analysed by ICP-MS. A mix of crystalline (mainly anatase), partly crystalline and amorphous spherical titanium oxide NPs can be reported having a mean size between 10 and 20 nm, which is rather independent of the laser ablation (LA) duration. A second component consisting of irregularly shaped, but crystalline titanium oxide nanostructures is co-generated in the LA water, with more pronounced occurrence at longer LA times. The provenance of this component is assigned to those spherical particles generated in suspension and passing through the converging laser beam, being hence subject to secondary irradiation effects, e. g. fragmentation.
The alloying system Co-Al-W-Ta is comprehensively investigated in the vicinity of the compositional point Co-9Al-10W-2Ta, at. pct. These investigations provided a large amount of quantitative information, which can be used for alloy development, namely, the compositional dependences of the The alloying system Co-Al-W-Ta is comprehensively investigated in the vicinity of the compositional point Co-9Al-10W-2Ta, at. pct. These investigations provided a large amount of quantitative information, which can be used for alloy development, namely, the compositional dependences of the γ‘-solvus, solidus, and liquidus temperatures; fraction of the extrinsic phases after casting; the compositional dependence of the γ/γ‘-lattice misfit; the element partitioning between γ- and γ‘-phases; and the two Phase compositional area γ/γ‘ in the Co-rich part of the Co-Al-W-Ta phase diagram at 900°C. It is shown that additions of Ta elevate the γ‘-solvus temperature and increase the γ/γ‘-lattice misfit, but adding more than about 3 at. pct Ta results in a large amount of undissolvable extrinsic phases. Additionally, two Co-Al-W-Ta alloys with lower content of W were developed and solidified as [001] single crystals for mechanical testing in a temperature range between 20 and 1200°C. These tests included measurement of the Young modulus, tensile tests with constant strain rate, and stress rupture tests. It was found that at temperatures up to about 750°C the ultimate tensile strength of Co-Al-Ta-W alloys can be at the same level or even higher than of Ni-based superalloys.
To increase efficiency, modern steam plants are pushing their operational regime from super-critical (600 °C/300 bar) to ultra-super-critical (740/760 °C/350 bar) stretching existing turbine materials to their limits. The focus is on new generation functional materials and technologies which complement the inherent properties of existing materials.
Current work proposes a novel High Power Impulse Magnetron Sputtering (HIPIMS) Deposition technology, for the first time, for deposition of a ceramic based CrN/NbN coating with a nanoscale multilayer structure (bi-layer thickness Δ = 1.9 nm) with superior adhesion (LC2 = 80 N) to protect low Chromium P92 steel widely used in steam power plants. Thermodynamic calculations predict the equilibrium phases and aggressive gaseous compounds generated by the interaction of steam with the coating. CrN/NbN coated P92 steel samples oxidised at 600 °C in a high pressure (50 bar) 100% steam atmosphere for up to 1000 h reveal the coating's superior oxidation resistance and protective mechanisms, especially against the detrimental effect of Hydrogen. High temperature (650 °C) Tensile Strength, Low Cycle Fatigue and Creep tests confirm that, unlike other state-of-the-art PVD technologies, HIPIMS is not detrimental to the mechanical properties of the substrate material. Water droplet erosion tests confirm no measurable weight loss after 2.4 X 10⁶ impacts.
Comprehensive insights into the early stages of corrosion mechanisms provide fundamental knowledge to further understand and model long time material behaviour. The present work studies the early stages of combined oxidation and sulphidation of ferritic model alloys for time scales up to 250 h at 650 °C to observe the influence of chromium during the corrosion under SO2. Model alloys were used to focus on the reaction of the intended elements: Fe, Cr, S, and O. Pure iron simultaneously forms magnetite and iron sulphide in an early stage of corrosion, covered by a pure oxide layer after 100 h. Iron with 13 wt% Cr shows hematite and mixed Fe-Cr-oxides first, before sulphides nucleate in the inner corrosion zone. With increasing ageing time a magnetite layer is observed below the hematite layer. Quantitative phase fractions of all corrosion products observed were determined from cross section images. Characterization of the Fe13Cr corrosion scale by FIB revealed a highly porous structure in the inner corrosion zone where Cr-rich (Fe, Cr)-sulphides are present, and caused the scale to spall easily.