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Purpose – This purpose of this paper is to report about the temperature distribution in metal and ceramic powder beds during 3D printing. The differing powders are thoroughly characterized in terms of thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, emissivity spectra and density.
Design/methodology/approach – The temperature distribution was measured in a 3D printing appliance (Prometal R1) with the help of thin thermocouples (0.25 mm diameter) and thermographic imaging. Temperatures at the powder bed surface as well as at differing powder bed depths were determined. The thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and emissivity spectra of the powders were measured as well. Numerical simulation was used to verify the measured temperatures.
Findings – The ceramic powder heated up and cooled down more quickly. This finding corresponds well with numerical simulations based on measured values for thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity as well as emissivity spectra. An observed color change at the metal powder has only little effect on emissivity in the relevant wavelength region.
Research limitations/implications – It was found that thermocouple-based temperature measurements at the powder bed surface are difficult and these results should be considered with caution.
Practical implications – The results give practitioners valuable information about the transient temperature evolution for two widely used but differing powder systems (metal, ceramic). The paramount importance of powder bed porosity for thermal conductivity was verified. Already small differences in thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and hence volumetric heat capacity lead to marked differences in the transient temperature evolution.
Originality/value – The paper combines several techniques such as temperature measurements, spectral emissivity measurements, measurements of thermal conductivity and diffusivity and density measurements. The obtained results are put into a numerical model to check the obtained temperature data and the other measured values for consistency. This approach illustrates that determinations of surface temperatures of the powder beds are difficult.
Die Menge an genutztem, verarbeitetem und gelagertem Holz steigt von Jahr zu Jahr. In der Folge konnte in den letzten fünf Jahren eine deutlich gestiegene Zahl von Bränden in Holzlagern und -halden festgestellt werden. Viele dieser Brände sind durch Selbstentzündung des Materials verursacht worden. Sind die Ursachen der Selbstentzündung bekannt, kann die Brandentstehung durch geeignete Maßnahmen vermieden werden. Die Fachgruppe II.2 „Reaktionsfähige Stoffe und Stoffsysteme“ der Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung hat in diesem Leitfaden das Thema aufgegriffen und die derzeit vorliegenden Erkenntnisse zusammenfassend dargestellt. Ziel des Leitfadens ist es, die Grundlagen der Selbstentzündung von Biomasse am Beispiel von Holz in übersichtlicher Form darzustellen und daraus praktische Hinweise zur Vermeidung der Selbstentzündung von Holzhalden abzuleiten, um so einen Weg für einen sicheren und nachhaltigen Umgang mit diesem Rohstoff zu ebnen. Dem Leitfaden liegen Ergebnisse des Forschungsvorhabens „Brandvermeidung bei der Lagerung von biogenen Brennstoffen“ zugrunde. Das Projekt wurde innerhalb der Fördermaßnahme „klimazwei – Forschung für den Klimaschutz und Schutz vor Klimawirkungen“ des Bundesministeriums für Bildung und Forschung finanziell gefördert (Förderkennzeichen 01LS05079). Für diese Förderung möchten die Autoren sich bedanken.
The current paper presents experimental investigations as well as numerical simulations on the influence of water and humidity on the self-ignition of combustible bulk materials.
It is well known, that bulk materials may undergo self-ignition if stored under specific conditions. In some cases, large amounts of these materials are exposed to a humid surrounding, e.g. dried coal in a moist atmosphere. Due to the effects of condensation and adsorption of water, additional heat is generated and transported into the bulk material. If the pile is stored slightly below its self-ignition temperature, the bulk material can become supercritical and an ignition occurs.
Experiments were carried out for German lignite coal sampled in two different particle size fractions. They showed, that subcritical deposits turned to supercritical behaviour if the relative humidity in the surrounding was suddenly increased or water was poured on the surface of the sample. Besides the experiments, a numerical model was established to describe the effects of self-heating until ignition of the deposit, including the transportation of moisture. Simulations with this model led to satisfying results when compared to the experiments.