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Eingeladener Vortrag
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Ultra-high performance fiber-reinforced concretes (UHPFRCs) are most suitable for applications with extreme mechanical loads. These extreme conditions require ductile behavior under tensile loading, which is obtained solely by the working mechanism of steel fibers. Profound knowledge on the working mechanism of the steel fibers is necessary to optimize this material. Usually, this knowledge is obtained by means of classical destructive measuring techniques. Adopting measuring techniques from non-destructive material testing helps to analyze and to identify the different stages of the fracture mechanism of UHPFRC in detail. The application of different non-destructive measuring techniques is shown exemplary on tensile tests conducted on an UHPFRC mix and its applicability for analyzing the fracture behavior of such concretes is discussed. The main focus is on the characterization of the relevant failure modes under tensile loading by the different measuring techniques and the comparison with classical measuring techniques (e.g. extensometer). The tensile tests have been analyzed by optical deformation measurements using digital image correlation (DIC), acoustic emission analysis (AE), and 3D computed tomography (CT).
At present, Wind Turbine Generators (WTGs) operating in onshore and offshore wind farms are primary sources of renewable energy around the world. Cylindrical grouted sleeve connections are usually adopted in these WTG structures to connect the upper structure and foundation for ease of installation. These structures including grouted connections experience considerable adverse loading during their lifetimes. Settlements were reported inside similar connections used in energy structures especially oil and gas platforms, which were installed in last three decades. Thus, repair and rehabilitation of such connections in existing wind structures should also be planned ahead to keep them operating in the future. The nature of failure and crack generation in grouted connections are crucial prior to adopt a strengthening strategy. This pilot study is carried out to actualize the failure mechanism in the grouted connection, when subjected to axial loading. A novel reusable scaled cylindrical grouted connection with shear keys was designed and tested for its load bearing behaviour. The mechanical test was accompanied by classical measuring techniques (e.g. displacement transducer) as well as non-destructive measuring techniques (e.g. digital image correlation (DIC), acoustic emission analysis (AE)). The failure mechanism incorporating slippage of the shear keys and cracking of the grout was investigated. The capacity and applicability of such test mould were also discussed. The knowledge is expected to pave way towards repair of deteriorated grouted connections with similar geometry and failure pattern.
Die Grout-Verbindung stellt die Nahtstelle zwischen Gründungsbauwerk und aufgehender Tragstruktur sicher. Die Funktion und Dauerhaftigkeit dieser Verbindung ist essentiell für die sichere Betriebsphase von Offshore-Windenergieanlagen. Die Bemessung der Grout-Verbindung stellt aktuell weitgehendes Neuland ohne Langzeiterfahrung dar. Gleichzeitig sind die Bedingungen bei der Montage Offshore sehr schwierig und die eingesetzten Materialien sind aufgrund ihrer technischen Merkmale in Verbindung mit den Verarbeitungsbedingungen nicht unproblematisch. Demzufolge stellen Grout-Verbindungen ungeregelte Bauarten und die hierfür verwendeten Mörtel (Grouts) ungeregelte Bauprodukte dar. Im Rahmen der Genehmigung ist daher beim Bundesamt für Seeschifffahrt und Hydrographie (BSH) als zuständiger Genehmigungsbehörde für jedes Bauvorhaben eine projektbezogene Zustimmung im Einzelfall (ZiE) zu beantragen.
Vor diesem Hintergrund sollte im DIN-Arbeitsausschuss NA 005-51-07 AA "Windenergieanlagen" eine geschlossene Normenreihe für Tragstrukturen von Windenergieanlagen und Plattformen erarbeitet werden. Anhand der Normenreihe soll allen bei der Planung, Errichtung und dem Betrieb von Windkraftanlagen Beteiligten ein Regelwerk für Bemessung, Baustoffe und deren Verwendung zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Ein Verweis auf die Normenanforderungen bzgl. der stofflichen Anforderungen, Bemessung und Ausführung durch den betreffenden BSH-Standard ist möglich, da eine ZiE weiterhin notwendig ist. Jedoch kann der Genehmigungsprozess aufgrund der vereinheitlichten Randbedingungen vereinfacht werden. Nach der erfolgreichen nationalen Einführung der DIN 18088 soll die Harmonisierung auf europäischer Ebene erfolgen.
The determination of the blast protection level of civil engineering buildings components
against explosive effects represents a topic of crucial importance, in current practice. However, some key aspects of blast resistant structures design have been only marginally considered in the last decade, and currently still require appropriate regulations. This is especially true in the case of windows and facades, where the intrinsic material brittleness is the major influencing parameter for blast-resistant assemblies. While blast assessment of buildings and systems is usually achieved by means of experimental investigations, as well as numerical simulations, general regulations and guidelines are currently missing.
In this regard, the European Reference Network for Critical Infrastructure Protection (ERNCIP) Thematic Group “Resistance of Structures to Explosion Effects” attempts to develop guidelines and recommendations aimed to harmonise test procedures in experimental testing of glass windows under blast, as well as standardized approaches for their vulnerability assessment via numerical modelling. In this paper, major Thematic Group outcomes and next challenges are briefly summarized.
The tensile behavior of strain-hardening cement-based composites (SHCC) is usually investigated on macroscopic scale by means of direct tension tests or bending tests. Additionally, the micromechanical properties of the composites are often described based on single fiber tension and pull-out tests. Such investigations, performed both on macroscopic and microscopic scales, are based on ‘classical’ force and displacement measuring techniques. Advanced test methods such as digital image correlation (DIC) and acoustic emission analysis (AE) may facilitate the identification and the analysis of the failure mechanisms in SHCC, which is important for both monitoring loaded SHCC elements and further material development and optimization. In this study, these two techniques are combined to characterize the failure mechanisms of three different types of SHCC in direct tension tests. The results are related to data of stress and strain measurements. It is shown that DIC provides detailed spatially resolved and stress related strain measurements. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that AE allows for the localization of active cracks, quantification of the damage accumulation under increasing stresses, and characterization of the dominant crack bridging mechanisms and failure modes observed in the different types of SHCC.
Damage mechanisms analysis of reinforced concrete beams in bending using non-destructive testing
(2019)
Beams that are loaded in transverse direction are one of the main structural elements used in reinforced concrete structures. Bending beams are used, for example, in bridge girders or joists. The strength related failure modes at maximum loading can be divided into bending and shear failure that could occur with or without indication. Conventional design concepts used in practice for designing structural elements subjected to bending aim at failure modes with sufficient indication (e.g. large deflections or cracks), as it occurs in the case of secondary flexure-compression-failure. These indicators can also be used to identify structural changes of civil infrastructure systems (e.g. bridges) using non-destructive testing methods for Structural Health Monitoring (SHM). However, profound knowledge on the determining failure modes of bending beams is required for the reliable application of structural health monitoring. Therefore, resulting effects of different thermal and mechanical loads on the response of a structure are investigated by means of a bridge demonstrator. The results of this investigation are used for developing a monitoring system. Different non-destructive testing (NDT) methods have been used for analyzing the deformation behavior of a reinforced concrete beam in bending. The suitability of the different measuring techniques will be discussed by means of the obtained experimental results. For this purpose, the deformation behavior of a reinforced concrete beam having a span of 2.75 m was investigated in a four-point bending flexural test at laboratory scale. The focus is on the characterization of determining failure modes by the NDT methods and the comparison with classical measuring techniques (e.g. deformation measurements by displacement transducers). The bending tests have been accompanied by Acoustic Emission analysis (AE), optical deformation measurements using Stereophotogrammetry (SP) and Digital Image Correlation (DIC). The conducted tests have shown that the three-dimensional detection of deformations and resulting strains with optical techniques is beneficial for analyzing the damage mechanism of loaded structures and related crack formation and propagation. Optical techniques can be supplemented by acoustic emission testing which gives detailed information on crack formation and progressing damage. The combination of both techniques offers the application as efficient monitoring system for larger structures.
The bond between polymer fibers and the surrounding cementitious matrix is essential for the development of concrete reinforcement. The single fiber pull-out test (SFPT) is the standard characterization technique for testing the bond strength. However, the different phases of debonding cannot be distinguished by the SFPT. This study investigates the debonding of different polymer fibers from the surrounding cementitious matrix with a modified SFPT and proposes methods to change the SFPT setup to generate more valuable information on the debonding mechanism. The SFPT was equipped with linear variable differential transformers (LVDT), digital image correlation (DIC) and acoustic emission (AE) analysis. The results demonstrate that the modified SFPT allows a better understanding of the different phases of debonding during fiber pull-out. Furthermore, bond strength values calculated by different methods reveal that the chemical bond of the investigated polymers is not different as reported by previous studies. Deformation measurements performed using LVDTs and DIC are suitable measuring techniques to characterize the debonding mechanism in SFPT. A correlation between recorded AE and debonding phases was not found.
Zur Bewertung der Widerstandsfähigkeit von Schutzobjekten und Bauteilen gegen Explosionsbeanspruchung führt die Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) regelmäßig Sprengversuche im Realmaßstab auf einem Testgelände durch.
Solche Versuche sind planungs- und ressourcenintensiv, sodass sie zunehmend durch numerische Simulationen ergänzt bzw. ersetzt werden.
Aktuelle Forschungsarbeiten zielen darauf ab, neue Berechnungsmethoden und Materialmodelle zu entwickeln, mit denen die Bestimmung der Bauteilantwort sowie die daraus resultierende Schädigung nach einem Explosionsereignis möglich sind.
Zur Validierung solcher Ansätze ist es notwendig, systematische Versuche mit unterschiedlichen Szenarien durchzuführen, bei denen die relevanten Parameter mit Hilfe verschiedener Messmethoden aufgezeichnet werden.
Additive manufacturing of concrete structures is a novel and emerging technology. Freecontouring in civil engineering, which allows for entirely new designs, is a significant advantage. Inthe future, lower construction costs are expected with increased construction speeds and decreasingrequired materials and workers. However, architects and civil engineers rely on a certain quality ofexecution to fulfil construction standards. Although several techniques and approaches demonstratethe advantages, quality control during printing is highly challenging and rarely applied. Due to thecontinuous mixing process commonly used in 3D concrete printing, it is impossible to exclude varia-tions in the dry mixture or water content, and a test sample cannot be taken as a representative samplefor the whole structure. Although mortar properties vary only locally, a defect in one layer duringprinting could affect the entire integrity of the whole structure . Therefore, real-time process monitor-ing is required to record and document the printing process.At the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) a new test rig for the additive man-ufacturing of concrete is built. The primary purpose is measuring and monitoring the properties of amortar during the printing process.The following study investigates an approach for calculating yield stress and plastic viscosity based onexperimentally recorded pressure data. The calculations assume that fresh mortar behaves as a Bing-ham fluid and that the Buckingham-Reiner-equation is applicable. A test setup consisting of rigid pipeswith integrated pressure sensors at different positions is utilized.Monitoring the printing process with different sensors is crucial for the quality control of an ongoingprocess.
Introduction of a monitoring system for Bingham fluids in additive manufacturing with concrete
(2022)
Freeform additive manufacturing of concrete structures is a rising technology in civil engineering with several fascinating advantages. Nonetheless, to ensure reliability and structural integrity, standards and quality control are required in the future to bring this technology into the market. As the concrete is manufactured continuously, continuous quality control of the printing process is also required, i.e. comprehensive process monitoring. At BAM, a test rig will be installed, enabling the printing of concrete structures with a maximum size of 2 m x 1 m x 1 m (l x w x h). Here, process monitoring is the focus of the test rig. In this study, we show the results of the first pump tests, including the measurement of several parameters such as temperature and pressure along the supply system, i.e. from the concrete pump to the printer head.
Repair is an indispensable part of the maintenance of structures over their lifetimes. Structural grouting is a widely used remediation technique for concrete components, trenches, mine subsidence, dam joints, restoration of masonry structures, and geological stabilizations. A structural grout system should be injectable in narrow spaces and hence include ingredients with finer particles. Ultrafine cements are ideal for these type of demanding grouts due to their superior properties compared to that of the less expensive, but coarser ordinary Portland cement (OPC). Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) are often used to replace OPC clinker based binder in order to modify certain properties and to reduce costs. The most commonly used SCMs are fly ash (FA), and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS). For various special applications microsilica (MS), and metakaolin (MK) are also used. Identifying the optimum replacement contents of OPC by SCMs are a challenge during the design of such grouts. The aim of this experimental study is to investigate the effect of the selected SCMs (FA, MS and MK) on the slump flow, time of efflux, viscosity, shrinkage, and compressive and flexural strength of ultrafine cement based grouts with constant water-binder ratio and superplasticizer content. The test program was formulated using Box-Behnken design principles. Maximum percentages of replacement with ultrafine cement was 6% by volume of cement for MS and 16% for FA, and MK. The results suggest that most investigated grouts have the potential to be used for structural applications. The appropriate quadratic models are then formulated through statistical tools and presented as response surfaces. The trends indicate that fly ash improves the rheological properties, whereas microsilica and metakaolin positively affect shrinkage and mechanical properties to some extent. Based on the influence of SCMs and priorities among the properties, Decision Matrix Analysis (DMA) is carried out to select the most suitable ones among the SCMs. The analysis suggests that microsilica and fly ash are more suitable as SCMs than metakaolin without affecting the properties.
At present, Wind Turbine Generators (WTGs) operating in onshore and offshore wind farms are primary sources of renewable energy around the world. Cylindrical grouted sleeve connections are usually adopted in these WTG structures to connect the upper structure and foundation for ease of installation. These structures including grouted connections experience considerable adverse loading during their lifetimes. Settlements were reported inside similar connections used in energy structures especially oil and gas platforms, which were installed in last three decades. Thus, repair and rehabilitation of such connections in existing wind structures should also be planned ahead to keep them operating in the future. The nature of failure and crack generation in grouted connections are crucial prior to adopt a strengthening strategy. This pilot study is carried out to actualize the failure mechanism in the grouted connection, when subjected to axial loading. A novel reusable scaled cylindrical grouted connection with shear keys was designed and tested for its load bearing behaviour. The mechanical test was accompanied by classical measuring techniques (e.g. displacement transducer) as well as non-destructive measuring techniques (e.g. digital image correlation (DIC), acoustic emission analysis (AE)). The failure mechanism incorporating slippage of the shear keys and cracking of the grout was investigated. The capacity and applicability of such test mould were also discussed. The knowledge is expected to pave way towards repair of deteriorated grouted connections with similar geometry and failure pattern.
Remediation of Cracks Formed in Grouted Connections of Offshore Energy Structures under Static Loads
(2018)
The future energy demand necessitates the exploration of all potential energy sources both onshore and offshore. Global trend has shifted towards offshore energy, which can be obtained from either carbon intensive or renewable options, hence requiring structures such as rigs, platforms, and monopiles. Most of these structures adopt easily installable construction techniques, where lower foundation need to be connected with the super structure by mean of grouted composite joints. Generally, these composite connections have exterior sleeve, interior pile and infill grout. Being located in remote offshore conditions, connections can experience considerable adverse loading during their lifetimes. Degradations were reported inside similar connections, which were installed in last three decades. Besides, grouting in the offshore sites may often be proven difficult, which eventually leads to reduced capacity of connections in the long run. Thus, repair and rehabilitation of such connections should be planned ahead to minimize operational delays and costs in the future. This study aims at characterizing the nature of crack generation in grouted connections and thereby identifying the potential of repair using suitable repair material. Scaled grouted joints were manufactured using a novel mold, and connections were loaded under static load to visualize the main failure pattern. The failure mechanism and loading capacity are found compatible to previous results from earlier literature. Grouted connection was then repaired using cementitious injectable grout. The effectiveness of the repair system is also discussed.
Grouts have numerous applications in construction industry such as joint sealing, structural repair, and connections in precast elements. They are particularly favoured in rehabilitation of structures due to penetrability and convenience of application. Grouts for repair applications typically require high-performance properties such as rapid strength development and superior shrinkage characteristics. Sometimes industrial by-products referred as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) are used with neat cement due to their capabilities to provide binding properties at delayed stage. Micro silica, fly ash and metakaolin are such SCMs, those can modify and improve properties of cement products. This study aims at investigating long-term mass loss and linear shrinkage along with long-term compressive and flexural strength for grouts produced from ultrafine cement and SCMs. A series of mixtures were formulated to observe the effect of SCMs on these grout properties. Properties were determined after 365 days of curing at 23oC and 55% relative humidity. The effect of SCMs on the properties are characterised by statistical models. Response surfaces were constructed to quantify these properties in relation to SCMs replacement. The results suggested that shrinkage was reduced by metakaolin, while micro silica and fly ash had positive effects on compressive and flexural strength, respectively.
Grouted connections are intensively used in offshore rigs, platforms as well as jacket and monopile offshore wind turbine structures. Being located in remote offshore conditions, these connections can experience considerable adverse loading during their lifetimes. Degradation was reported inside similar connections, which were installed in the last three decades. Grouting in the offshore sites may often be proven difficult, which eventually leads to reduced load-bearing capacity of connections in the long run. Thus, repair and rehabilitation of such connections should be planned ahead to minimize operational delays and costs. In this study, scaled grouted connections were manufactured using a novel mould, whose integrity were monitored using digital image correlation (DIC). The connections were loaded under static load to visualize the main failure pattern using distributed fibre optic sensors and acoustic emission (AE) analysis. Grouted connections were then repaired using a cementitious injectable grout. The effectiveness of the grout injection was monitored using dye penetration technique. Finally, specimens are reloaded to identify the potential of such repair for grouted connections.
Grouts are particularly favoured in rehabilitation of structures due to penetrability and convenience of application. Grouts for repair applications typically require high-performance properties such as rapid strength development and superior shrinkage characteristics. Sometimes industrial by-products referred as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) are used with neat cement due to their capabilities to provide binding properties at delayed stage. Micro silica, fly ash and metakaolin are such SCMs, those can modify and improve properties of cement products. This study aims at investigating long-term mass loss and linear shrinkage along with long-term compressive and flexural strength for grouts produced from ultrafine cement and SCMs. A series of mixtures were formulated to observe the effect of SCMs on these grout properties. Properties were determined after 365 days of curing at 23 °C and 55% relative humidity. The effect of SCMs on the properties are characterised by statistical models. Response surfaces were constructed to quantify these properties in relation to SCMs replacement. The results suggested that shrinkage was reduced by metakaolin, while micro silica and fly ash had positive effects on compressive and flexural strength, respectively.
Global energy consumption will increase in the future necessitating both fossil fuels and renewable energy choices - especially wind energy. Such high energy demand requires installation of offshore energy structures, rigs, platforms and towers, which are susceptible to adverse environmental conditions along with maintenances. Due to their large size and remote locations, cylindrical grouted joints are often adopted between substructure and foundation in these offshore platforms and wind structures such as monopiles. However, these connections are composite structures with exterior sleeve, interior pile and infill mortar. Degradation and settlements were reported inside similar connections, which were installed in last three decades. Besides, grouting in the offshore sites were proven difficult to obtain ideal load bearing capacity. In-situ loading conditions were also found to be affecting the failure mechanism inside such connections. This study aims at characterizing the nature of cracks generated in these grouted connections under both static and cyclic loading. Scaled grouted joints were manufactured using a novel reusable mold, and connections were loaded to failure to visualize the main failure patterns. An assessment between failure under these two types of load is drawn along with comparison to previously available literature.
The authors are currently investigating the possibility to apply compaction grouting for offshore pile foundations (Jacket piles as well as monopiles) as a possible retrofitting technique for an optimised foundation concept. In this research project, we are developing a design approach aiming to predict the ideal amount and properties of a grout for a specific soil situation and desired improvement of pile bearing capacity after Installation and during service time. Both numerical and experimental tests have been carried out to investigate the injection process during which a highly viscous grout is injected into the soil under high pressure to displace and compact the surrounding soil without fracturing it. The implicit Material Point Method (MPM) based on a mixed formulation is the numerical technique chosen to deal with the expected large deformations and the arbitrary shape of the developing grout bulb. The usage of MPM prevents both the need of remeshing and the numerical instability induced by extensive mesh distortion. For validation with experimental results, we have constructed a testing chamber with one transparent sidewall. This chamber enables us to observe the injection process directly at the transparent vertical window and to measure the in-plane soil displacements and strains by means of the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique.
The results already reveal the interrelation of soil and grout properties for a successful usage of this common ground improvement technique.
Superplasticizer and Shrinkage Reducing Admixture Dosages for Microfine Cement in Grout Systems
(2019)
Grouts have numerous applications including crack repair as maintenance in construction industries. Microfine cements are intensively used for high strength mortar and grout products. They are ideal for injection grouting in structural repair. Such grouts should have suitable rheological properties to be injectable, especially those used in repair and rehabilitation. The use of superplasticizers (SP) in these products is thus becoming increasingly crucial to achieve favorable workability and viscosity properties. A difficulty in such grouts is the plastic shrinkage due to finer particles used. It is thus necessary to determine optimum SP and shrinkage reducing admixture (SRA) dosages for a microfine cement based grout. In this study, a saturation dosage was decided from two Polycarboxylate ether (PCE) based SPs in relation to neat cement using slump flow and rheological parameters. A range of grout mixtures was formulated containing micro silica (MS) and fly ash (FA), and tested for suitable rheological and mechanical parameters. Based on the results, a grout mixture with MS and FA was selected to determine optimum SRA content. According to the results, a SP dosage of 3% by weight of neat cement is sufficient to achieve saturation. The grout material including MS and FA can produce comparable properties to neat cement grout. MS is found to improve compressive strength within the range considered, whereas a higher FA content provides favourable rheological properties. Finally, a SRA dosage of 4%, which could reduce the shrinkage by about 43% after 28d days, is determined for the grout system.
Grouting is a universal repair and strengthening technique, which is constantly used for structural remediation of concrete components, trenches, mine subsidence, dam joints, restoration of masonry structures, and geological stabilizations. Having an extremely small particle size of only few microns, ultrafine cements are ideal for grouting applications due to their superior permeability and compressive strength properties of the hardened cement paste compared to that of the less-expensive, but coarser ordinary Portland cements. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) are often used to replace ultrafine cement in order to modify certain properties and to reduce costs. The aim of this experimental study is to investigate the effect of three supplementary materials: microsilica (MS), fly ash (FA), and metakaolin (MK) on the workability, and mechanical properties of an ultrafine cement based grout with a constant water-binder ratio and constant superplasticizer content. Maximum percentages of replacement with ultrafine cement were 6% by volume of cement for MS and 16% for FA, and MK. In general, results suggest that the workability is improved by addition of FA, whereas is reduced, when modified with MS and MK. The compressive strength of grout after cement replacement remains comparable to that of pure cement grout. However, there is a tendency of the MS to positively affect the compressive strength opposite to FA, whereas flexural strength is positively affected by FA. Based on the results, it is evident that grouts with Hägerman cone flow more than 500 mm and compressive strength of more than 90 MPa after 28 days can be produced.
The aim of an ongoing research project is to develop a design approach for typical offshore driven piles (e.g. Jacket piles) based on the application of injections by compaction grouting directly at the pile shaft. The paper aims to present the results of laboratory and in-situ tests, which reveal the efficiency and the promising potential of the optimised foundation concept for a more economic dimensioning of pile foundations and to increase their bearing capacity in non-cohesive soil at any moment after installation.
Global energy consumption will increase in the future necessitating both fossil fuels and renewable energy choices - especially wind energy. Such high energy demand requires installation of offshore energy structures, rigs, platforms and towers, which are susceptible to adverse environmental conditions along with maintenances. Due to their large size and remote locations, cylindrical grouted joints are often adopted between substructure and foundation in these offshore platforms and wind structures such as monopiles. However, these connections are composite structures with exterior sleeve, interior pile and infill mortar. Degradation and settlements were reported inside similar connections, which were installed in last three decades. Besides, grouting in the offshore sites were proven difficult to obtain ideal load bearing capacity. In-situ loading conditions were also found to be affecting the failure mechanism inside such connections. This study aims at characterizing the nature of cracks generated in these grouted connections under both static and cyclic loading. Scaled grouted joints were manufactured using a novel reusable mold, and connections were loaded to failure to visualize the main failure patterns. An assessment between failure under these two types of load is drawn along with comparison to previously available literature.
Current trend suggests that global energy consumption will increase in the future. This growing energy demand and advancement of technology lead to explore all potential offshore fossil and non-fossil energy sources, necessitating erection of exploration and production structures, rigs, platforms and towers, which are susceptible to adverse environmental conditions along with their maintenances. Cylindrical grouted joints provide suitable connections between steel substructure and foundation in these offshore platforms and wind structures especially monopiles for ease of installation. However, these are composite connections with exterior sleeve, interior pile and infill grout. The capacity of these connections is affected by number of factors. The literature over last four decades by numerous researchers has shown the development of these connections with increasingly higher capacities and influences on these capacities due to various factors. This paper provides a comprehensive review on the factors affecting the connection capacity along with technical challenges for the future. Critical aspects and shortcomings of the current connection systems and potential solutions may be sought after for these issues are also discussed.
The structural integrity of outer reinforced concrete (RC) containments of nuclear power plants provides an essential shield against external hazards. If this containment is damaged by an impact event, such as an aircraft crash, the question arises to which degree the reinforced concrete containment still has its protective capability. This concerns both purely structural protection and protection against liquids penetrating the interior of the containment. Due to the dimensions of the containment structures, it is difficult to perform real scale impact experiments, so in the past decades plate geometries at medium scale have been used for investigations. Detailed investigations on the structural behaviour of RC members or RC plates subjected to impact loading have already been presented in Just et al., Hering, Hering et al., Bracklow et al., Hille et al. and Nerger et al.
The following investigations deal with the single and multiple impact event (first hard impact and/or subsequent soft impact) on a RC specimen, which provides the basis for further investigations. A description of the test setup and the test procedure as well as a presentation of the test results from the impact tests are provided.
Furthermore, the experimental program is presented, which the damaged RC specimens are to undergo to deal with the question of how much the impact-damaged RC structure has become permeable to liquid media, such as water and kerosene, depending on the intensity of the impact. The aim of these following investigations is to develop a test setup that can be applied to investigate the liquid penetration behaviour (LPB) of small, medium, and large-scale RC members.
In addition to the liquid penetration experiments, the damaged specimens are to be examined by planar tomography to obtain the damage inside the specimen. The combination of damaging event, fluid penetration behaviour and tomography should enable a comprehensive understanding of the damage to the RC specimen.