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Eingeladener Vortrag
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In einem von der BAM Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung durchgeführten Forschungsvorhaben wurde untersucht, inwieweit bei Gefahrguttanks im Brandfall ein 'BLEVE', d. h. ein Versagen der Umschließung mit anschließender Freisetzung der Flüssigkeit bzw. des verflüssigten Gases, verzögert bzw. verhindert werden kann.
Using plastic jerrycans or plastic containers, dangerous goods are transported as air freight in commercial aircrafts. Liquids or gases can escape by leakage or permeation effects from these plastic containers. The German Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) conducted prior research which showed that the lower explosion limit can be reached when transporting dangerous goods in sea-freight containers under normal transportation situations. The presented study is motivated based on these findings. The research objective of this study is to analyze the transportation situation of dangerous goods in cargo compartments of commercial airplanes. The scope of this paper is to present the experimental method used for validating a numerical model for CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) simulations and to present some simulation results of the mass transport of dangerous goods in the cargo compartment.
The velocity profiles and the mass transport is calculated using numerical simulations and measured by Laser-Doppler-Anemometry (LDA) experiments. The mock-up is a generic model of a wide-body aircraft lower deck cargo compartment in a 1: 10 scale. Geometry, air exchange rates and inlet as well as outlet flow conditions in the cargo compartment are modeled using realistic boundary conditions. The commercial CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) code ANSYS CFX 14 is used for numerical flow simulations applying RANS (Reynolds-Averaged-Navier-Stokes) equations and turbulence models. The turbulence models studied are the renormalization group k-e-model (RNG), the BSL-Reynolds-Stress model (BSL) and the SST-k-co-model by Menter (SST).
The flow measurement with LDA in the mock-up of a cargo compartment proves to be a feasible method for producing data to validate CFD simulations. Qualitative evaluation of the results shows a good overall agreement between numerical and experimental results. The experimental validation indicates that the implemented CFD model is capable of reproducing the flow situation in the model mock-up
A new tank design for Hazmat
(2016)
Initial studies have shown pre-deformed honeycomb structure
pressure vessels to have comparable burst pressure to straight steel vessels.
It was shown that honeycomp structured tanks have a higher energy absorption than straight steel tanks.
Future studies will investigate optimization of the deformed plate, to determine if increased payloads or a reduced wall thickness can be achieved.
Pressurisation of full-containment pressure vessels in fire is known to be driven by thermal stratification. The predominant mode of heat transfer to the contents (convection from the shell to the liquid phase) results in formation of „hot“ boundary layers. Sub-cooled boiling may also be present. The warm layer rises to the surface through buoyancy and bubble flow, increasing the surface of the liquid above that of the bulk temperature, and hence driving a pressure rise.
For reliable prediction of the complex effects governing vessel pressurization a three-dimensional numerical model is required. Work is being undertaken on such a model by other institutions in cooperation with this project.
Simplified cargo-vehicle interaction: linear pendulum, rigid multibody linear dynamics, straight, instead of articulated vehicle.
Realistic results about the pressure developed on the sensor, with differences lower than 10% between the simulation and the experimental data.
Sloshing could affect the braking efficiency in 7%, approximately, corresponds with other sources.
The arrangement of the measuring sensors allowed the
capture of air flow induced temperatures and material
temperatures on various points of the cylinder body. Four
significant temperature levels could be observed: Inside the cylinder (far from the wall, close to the wall), inside the aluminium liner and outer surface. Figure 5 shows the temperature distribution after a regular filling process with a filling time of ten minutes. The temperature sensors T1 - T9 are marked with different colors. The corresponding measurement points are shown in Figure 4. Due to the high thermal conductivity of the aluminum liner the induced temperature peaks are quickly derived. A flow-induced exceeding of the maximum approval temperature is not expected. Regarding the safety assessement the results show that the pressure and temperature profilesmustbe taken into account.
It was possible to achieve an error as 9% or even 0% at certain time steps, as shown in the graph above, the usage of UDF code has major importance in achieving the pressure Profile required, and it heat transfer between the bottle itself and the surroundings was taken into consideration which of course had a high influence on how the temperature of the air flask changes.
Figure 10 illustrates the theoretical results from the simplified model considered, together with the experimental data. These results and measurements are presented one next to the other, in order to facilitate the validity analysis of the proposed simulation methodology.
These results illustrate that the trends are comparable for both sets of data, that is, a similar range is obtained for all of the variables reported. A lower pressure is generated in chamber 5, which is attributed to the shorter length of this chamber. However, such increase in pressure does not correspond exactly to the difference of lengths, as the ratio of lengths would cause a differential pressure of 2.3/1.23 = 1.86, while the ratio of average pressures is on the order of 2. That is, there is an incremental, which is associated to the maximum height attained by the fluid in the chamber. The major difference between both sets of data, the experimental and theoretical, is that the theoretical do not include much of the noise and random oscillations reported in the experimental data. Such noise, however, is of very low amplitude, in comparison with the maximum values attained. The practical applications of these results could be in the area of chamber design, so that the effects of the length of the chambers be taken into account. That is, such greater lengths for the fluid in the chamber would involve larger pressures and consequently, greater stresses. However, the analysis should include an overall perspective, that is, the shortening of the chambers would imply an increase in the number of chambers, for a certain total payload, and the superposition effect of pressures, should be considered. On the other hand, the analysis could be extended to characterize the effects of the distribution of the lengths of the different chambers along the axis of the tanker, as the different resulting forces could have different effects on the pitch response of the road tanker.
Die BAM – Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung führt schon seit vielen Jahren auf zwei Brand- prüfständen Brandprüfungen z.B. an Transport- und Lagerbehältern für radioaktive Stoffe oder zur Prüfung von Brandschutzbeschichtungen durch. Als Brandmedium wird auf diesen Prüfständen Flüssiggas (Propan- Butan-Gemisch C) eingesetzt, mit dem die Prüfobjekte simulierten Unfallfeuern ausgesetzt werden. Mit dem neuen Jetfire – Prüfstand der BAM können seit Anfang 2018 diverse Belastungsszenarien nach den Anforde- rungen der ISO22899-1:2007 [1] simuliert werden.
Wasserdruckprüfung kann entfallen: Schutzziel definieren, Qualitätssichernde Maßnahmen während der Herstellung, Nachweise der vorhandenen Qualität muss stetig erfolgen mittels: Betriebsüberwachung, zfP Bewertung des Standes der Technik: Zustandsorientierte Instandhaltung/Inspektion, Reduzierung von Ausfallzeiten durch optimierten Betrieb
Neben herkömmlichen Stahlflaschen, die seit Jahrzehnten in fast unveränderter Bauform für Flüssiggase (Propan-Butan-Gemische) eingesetzt werden, etablieren sich immer mehr Flaschen aus Faserverbundwerkstoffen (GFK) mit einer geringeren Masse. Die Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) wurde beauftragt, das Verhalten dieser Gasflaschen unter den extremen Bedingungen eines Unfallfeuers zu untersuchen. In einem Brandprüfstand der BAM auf dem Testgelände Technische Sicherheit (TTS) in Horstwalde wurden deshalb beide Typen von Propangasflaschen einem simulierten Unfallfeuer ausgesetzt.
Dangerous goods are transported as air freight in commercial aircrafts. Using plastic jerrycans or plastic containers, liquids or gases can escape by leakage or permeation effects. Prior research by the German Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) showed that the lower explosion limit can be reached when transporting dangerous goods in sea-freight containers under normal transportation situations. This motivated the presented study of the transportation situation of dangerous goods in cargo compartments of commercial airplanes. The scope of this paper is to present the experimental method used for validating a numerical model for CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) simulations. The CFD model will be used in a future study to evaluate the potential risk from transporting dangerous goods.
The objective of this paper is to present the model mock-up of an aircraft cargo compartment and some examples of three dimensional velocity profiles of the air flow in the mock-up. The velocity profiles are calculated using numerical simulations and measured by Laser-Doppler-Anemometry (LDA) experiments. The mock-up is a generic model of a wide-body aircraft lower deck cargo compartment in a 1:10 scale. Geometry, air exchange rates and inlet as well as outlet flow conditions in the cargo compartment are modeled using realistic boundary conditions. The commercial CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) code ANSYS CFX 14 is used for numerical flow simulations applying RANS (Reynolds-Averaged-Navier-Stokes) equations and turbulence models. The turbulence models studied are the renormalization group k-ε-model (RNG), the Reynolds-Stress model by Launder, Reece and Rodi (LRR) and the SST-k-ω-model by Menter (SST).
The flow measurement with LDA in the mock-up of a cargo compartment proves to be a feasible method for producing data to validate CFD simulations. Qualitative evaluation of the results shows a good overall agreement between numerical and experimental results. The experimental validation indicates that the implemented CFD model is capable of reproducing the flow situation in the model mock-up.
Im Gefahrgutrecht, insbesondere im Bereich der Gefahrguttanks für den Landverkehr, hat der Bezug zur technischen Norm aufgrund der Rechtsfortentwicklung eine fundamentale Bedeutung erlangt. Damit die Interessen der deutschen Tankhersteller genügend Berücksichtigung finden können, ist die kontinuierliche Mitarbeit der betroffenen Wirtschaftskreise in den nationalen und internationalen Normungsgremien erforderlich. Dieser Zusammenhang, der für den einzelnen Hersteller mit erhöhtem Aufwand verbunden ist, wird von den betroffenen Kreisen nicht flächendeckend wahrgenommen. Der Beitrag analysiert Gründe hierfür und macht Vorschläge zu leichten Korrekturen in der inhaltlichen Ausrichtung der Normung.
Simulation of liquid cargo – vehicle interaction under lateral and longitudinal accelerations
(2018)
Amongst the vehicle parameters influencing road safety, the carried cargo plays a critical role in the case of a liquid cargo, posing rollover risk and affecting the available friction forces for braking. While the lateral sloshing of the cargo within the vehicle´s compartments, can be excited when the vehicle negotiates a turn, the longitudinal motion of the cargo derives from changes of speed. The combination of both types of perturbations occurs when the vehicle brakes while negotiating a turn. In this paper, a two-pendulum formulation is used to simulate the lateral and longitudinal behavior of a vehicle when negotiating a braking in a turn maneuver. The suspension forces are thus calculated as the linear superposition of both models. Results suggest that the vehicle roll stability is affected by the cargo sloshing, with increments on the order of 100% in the lateral load transfer, for a 50% filled tank. On the other hand, the dispersion of the travelling speed also affects the lateral stability of such type of vehicles, as a function of the dispersion of the vehicle´s travelling speed.
The use of railway transportation for satisfying the transport needs of goods in Mexico is less intense than in developed countries, such as Germany. Mexican performance measures based upon the railway length per capita (intensity), or the railway length per square km of the country surface (density), are well behind from corresponding indicators for Germany, in such a way that the length of the railway infrastructure of Mexico should be, at least, doubled in order to reach a comparable intensity rate as that of Germany. In this paper, the benefits from transferring the whole transportation of goods from road to railway, is discussed. The benefits include a remarkable reduction in energy consumption and CO2 emissions. The feasibility for the electrical infrastructure to provide the necessary energy is further shown, while the economic feasibility of such situation is analyzed on the basis of the federal budget of Mexico. According to these estimations, the investment in railway infrastructure is feasible, while the electrical installed capacity is enough to satisfy an all-electric system.
This paper describes a theoretical model to simulate the effects of a sloshing cargo on the safety performance of a vehicle that performs a braking-in-a-turn maneuver when travels at a partial fill level. The fundamental assumption of the model consists of the superposition of the effects of two simplified mechanical-analogy models that represent a liquid cargo on a vehicle, including one for the roll motion and another one for the pitch motion. The distinctive characteristics of the mechanical models, however, is that they are based upon a validated formulation to establish the properties of the pendulum (length).
The results suggest a small effect of the sloshing cargo on the braking efficiency of the cargo, while the load transfer is moderately affected. However, such results should be put into a perspective, according to which such small variations can represent the avoidance of a rear-end crash or a rollover. In this respect, a specialized ABS system could be considered to improve the performance of such kind of vehicles when performing such maneuvers.
Validation of the proposed methodology should be performed as a continuation of this research effort.
A filling process of the pressure bottle used for the air storage was investigated by numerical simulations. During the filling process, the temperature was rising up to maximal value and after that started to decline. The good match was found between experimental and numerical results. In order to reproduce the experimental conditions, the process of the filling bottle was controlled by the pressure which varied in time. This filling strategy influenced furthermore the mass flow rate and the air flow velocity. Because of the geometrical symmetry, the simulation was calculated as an axisymmetric problem.
The safety of any transport system depends on a multitude of conditions, parameters and circumstances. In this regard, the interaction of the carried Cargo with the carrying vehicle represents a factor influencing the overall safety of any transport. The effects of cargo on the vehicle have to do with the vibration or shifting of the cargo, affecting the lateral stability of the vehicles and the braking performance.
Such interaction has been associated to road crashes and maritime vehicles capsizing. Simulation of cargo-vehicle interaction thus represents an interesting Topic when a reduction in transport accidents is pursued. In this paper, the fundamentals principles for simulating the interaction of the liquid cargo and the carrying vehicle, is presented. In the case of a road transportation, the proposed simplified Simulation methodologies, show good agreement with a full-scale test.
To reduce the emission of carbondyoxide (CO2) of combustion engines, liquefied natural gas (LNG) is used as an alternative fuel. LNG is transported via truck, ship or railway for long distances. Double walled stainless steel tanks are used for transportation, which are heavy and expensive. The vacuum insulation between the two walled structure ensures that the LNG stays liquid over the transportation time (boiling point of LNG: -162 ◦C). This causes a high temperature difference between the transported good and the ambient air.
A simplified tank construction is used to reduce the weight and price of the tank. Instead of stainless steel, glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) is used. The design is changed to a single walled construction with a solid insulation material outside on the GFRP structure.
Goal of this work is the characterization of a suitable insulation material and configuration as well as the analysis of the mechanical properties of GFRP under cryogenic conditions. Several experiments are carried out. Numerical models of these experiments can then be used for parameter studies.
Parameter study for CFD in the bottle – grid resolution plays an important role on the temperature at the specific positions, 2D axi-symetrical calculation is a sufficient solution strategy in regards to the examined particular Problem. The intensity of filling process can be controlled by pressure “User defined function” provided by experiments. Numerical simulation demonstrated feasibility to predict temperature progress during the filling process successfully validated by experiments. The turbulent model k-w SST is the best strategy for the turbulent property calculations. The most intensive turbulent kinetic energy appeared in the middle region of the pressure bottle, the impact of the eddy viscosity on the wall was mostly in the wall region.
Effective assessment and management of railway infrastructure for competitiveness and sustainability
(2018)
In this chapter the challenges facing railways have been illustrated through the description of two important events occurring in different geographical areas. While the explosion in Quebec, Canada, points out the importance of taking away the transportation infrastructure from highly populated areas; the disruption of the European railway network in Rastatt, Germany, describes the importance of designing alternative routes to critical railway segments, together with the need to have contingency plans to face extraordinary situations regarding the connectivity in a given transport network.
Future research efforts are recognized in relation with the railway car – track interaction, as the dynamic loads derived from such interaction could be reducing the life of such infrastructure. It is particularly important for infrastructures dedicated to the transportation of liquid hazardous substances.
The results are based on data1. Figure 3 displays temperatures of the tank wall and of the gas phase over testing time. It can be seen that a complete coating strongly delayed the heating of tank wall and gas phase, whereas the partly coated tanks only had a minor influence on temperature development. There was no significant difference between a half coated and a thirdly coated tank measurable. Figure 4 shows the internal pressure of tanks over testing time. Only the fully coated tank enabled a low pressure over 90 min testing time. Hence, a complete coating is necessary to guarantee the fire safety of hazmat tanks and a partly coating is not sufficient.
Pressure Vessel Fire Test
(2014)
How can the risk of a BLEVE be reduced? That is the main question based on different research projects. In various large scale fire tests fire protection coating systems were used of different manufacturers. The degree of the coating as well as the layer thickness and the processing were varied. These experimental configurations were partly tested with and without pressure relief valve. The pressure relief valves were not protected again the thermal Load from the test fire. The ambition is to find a minimum of the thickness from the fire protection coating witch delay a BLEVE up to 90 minutes. Here are given the most interested configurations of tanks in fire and a description of the test-rigs.
Nondestructive Testing (NDT) and fracture mechanics are two different disciplines in applied engineering science. Both areas are very important for the evaluation of the component integrity. Unfortunately the technical understanding in both disciplines is not identically, what lead to misunderstandings. In the present paper, the basic ideas about fracture mechanics and the input parameters coming from the NDT side are explained, concerning the integrity evaluation of the components. The widely used NDT methods are magnetic particle, dye penetrant, electrical eddy currents, radiography and ultrasonics. But not all of these common NDT methods can deliver parameters satisfy the fracture mechanics requirements. The first two can detect only surface-breaking or immediately sub-surface defects. Eddy current can also find defects in deeper sub-surface layers, while radiography and ultrasonics can also find embedded, remote defects. These three methods have furthermore a high potential for defect sizing and are therefore predestined to provide fracture mechanics input parameters. At the example of steam generator tube inspection the interplay of eddy current and fracture mechanics as related to tube integrity will be explained.
The US Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) current regulations for rail tank cars in the United States stipulate that, for certain hazardous materials, tank cars shall have a thermal protection system capable of preventing rupture of the tank for 100 minutes when exposed to an engulfing fire with a blackbody equivalent flame temperature of 871 °C (+/- 56°C), and that tanks shall have a pressure relief device set at an appropriate level (depending on the type of tank car and contents). Pressure relief devices are a source of non-accident releases, and hence may cause serious incidents when tanks are transporting hazardous materials. Industry in North America would therefore benefit from removal of pressure relief devices on tanks transporting certain hazardous materials. Such an approach is known as full Containment, and is standard practice in Europe. In 2014 the FRA commissioned an experimental study to investigate the ability of a specific design of rail tank to resist rupture without incorporating a pressure release valve. As a precursor to tests on tanks there was a need to develop and characterise a simulated pool fire capable of reliably exposing large-scale tanks to repeatable, uniform conditions. This paper describes such a fire test setup, developed using a burner array system fuelled by liquid propane and designed to produce luminous, low velocity flames representative of those found in large hydrocarbon pool fires. The experimental set-up is described, along with the Instrumentation (directional flame thermometers, infra-red camera, and thermally massive calorimeter) and methodology used to characterise the fire. Comparisons are made against previous fire tests on vessels to assess the suitability of the experimental set-up for future vessel testing.
Gefahrguttanks
(2016)
Use of higher-alloyed metallic materials and duplex steels for transport tanks of dangerous goods
(2011)
Compatibility evaluations of selected metallic materials under the influence of dangerous goods are published in the BAM-List - Requirements for Tanks for the Transport of Dangerous Goods” as basis for substance-related prototype approvals for tank Containers designed for the carriage of dangerous goods.
There is a request of the tank manufacturing industry and transportation Companies to incorporate additional materials into the BAM-List, especially corrosion-resistant materials because of the large number of corrosive dangerous goods. One solution to solve corrosion Problems is to line the tank with a polymer, an alternative solution is the application of high-alloyed stainless steels and nickel-based alloys as there are 1.4529 (XINiCrMoCu 25-20-7, alloy 926), 1.4562 (X1NiCrMoCu32-28-7, alloy 31) and 2.4605 (NiCr23Mo16AI, alloy 59).
There is an interest to use cost-efficient steels with high strength values and concomitant adequate corrosion resistance such as duplex steel 1.4362 (X2CrNiN23-4).
This steel grade was originally developed as a substitute for the austenitic grades 1.4404 (X2CrNiMo17-12-2) and 1.4571 (X6CrNiMoTi17-12-2). Due to the lower content of the alloy elements nickel and molybdenum this duplex steel is a cost-efficient alternative to molybdenum containing austenite.
Due to the limited number of corrosion test results with welded test samples of these high-alloyed materials and the duplex steel under the influence of corrosive dangerous goods a comprehensive test Programme was performed with these materials in Cooperation with ThyssenKrupp VDM and Deutsche Edelstahlwerke GmbH. It can be concluded from the test results that the superaustenitic steels 1.4529 and 1.4562 as well as the nickel-based alloy 2.4605 are a really good alternative as tank materials for the transport of dangerous goods in comparison to the lining of the tanks. The nickel-based alloy 2.4605 shows the best resistance and is suitable as material for tanks transporting all tested corrosive substances. One exception is the temperature limit during the transport of hydrochloric acid.
The superaustenit 1.4562 is a resistant material with a wide ränge of application. Exceptions for use are: ammonium bifluoride, brine, 34 % calcium Chloride solution, hydrochloric acid, perchloric acid, 90 % 2-chloropropionic acid, nitrating acid with nitric acid content > 50 % and molten monochloroacetic acid. The alloy is limited suitable for allyl Chloride, aluminum Chloride, copper (II) -Chloride and ferric Chloride. The superaustenit 1.4529 showed the lowest resistance compared to the other two materials. This steel is not resistant in hydrochloric acid, perchloric acid, sodium Chlorite and sodium hypochlorite. The application is limited in the concentration ränge of aqueous Solutions of aluminum Chloride, copper (II) Chloride and ferric Chloride. Due to the reduced alloying content of the duplex steel 1.4362 (X2CrNiN23-4) compared to the austenitic CrNiMo-steels, a lower resistance especially in acidic media like formic, acetic or sulfuric acid was observed. Within the more than 7.000 substances contained in the BAM-List there is a large amount of dangerous goods such as hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, ethers, esters, and inorganic alkaline substances which have a large transport volume and do not corrode the duplex steel 1.4362 (X2CrNiN23-4).
The test results are included in the actual 11th edition of the BAM-List and therefore available for the costumer.
Für die Bewertung der Integrität von Tanks ist die detaillierte Kenntnis der belastungsrelevanten Parameter unabdingbar. Die Wärmeübergangszahl a ist eine derartige Größe. Die Wärmeübergangszahl bestimmt direkt die Größe der vorhandenen Beanspruchungen im Tank. Insofern sollte die Wärmeübergangszahl bekannt sein. Aus diesem Grund wurden experimentelle Untersuchungen durchgeführt. Für einen sich im Feuer befindlichen Tank ergibt sich die Wärmeübergangszahl zu 50 W/m2K. Auf dieser Basis konnten die bereits durchgeführten experimentellen Untersuchungen mithilfe der Methode der finiten Elemente nachgerechnet werden. Die dabei erzielten Ergebnisse sind infolge der getroffenen modelltechnischen sowie thermodynamischen Vereinfachungen als zufriedenstellend zu bezeichnen. In einem nächsten Schritt wird an einer verbesserten Modellierung sowie thermodynamischen Beschreibung der Verhältnisse im Tank gearbeitet.
Daten über Schadensursachen und die tatsächliche Nutzungsdauer der Tanks zum Transport von Gefahrgütern liegen nur in begrenztem Maße vor. Auf der Basis der Daten von Tankbaufirmen, Speditionen und Eisenbahnkesselwagen-Vermietgesellschaften wurde die durchschnittliche Lebensdauer von Tankcontainern, Tankfahrzeugen und Kesselwagen zur Beförderung von Gefahrgütern in der Praxis ermittelt und die Hauptschadensursachen analysiert. Korrosion, Risse an Schweißnähten, Gestaltungs- und Dimensionierungsfehler sowie fertigungs- und betriebsbedingte Fehler zählen zu den Hauptschadensursachen. Viele Tanks werden vor Ablauf ihrer Nutzungsdauer nicht mehr für den Transport von Gefahrgütern eingesetzt, da sie nicht mehr den geänderten gesetzlichen Anforderungen in den Gefahrgutvorschriften entsprechen. Die Voraussagen durch Literaturangaben und Ergebnisse von Korrosionsversuchen in der BAM-Liste – Anforderungen an Tanks zur Beförderung gefährlicher Güter – spiegeln sich in der Nutzungsdauer/Lebensdauer der Tanks wider.