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Eingeladener Vortrag
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The water-transport characteristics of concrete have a major impact on its resistance to damaging chemical processes such as Alkali-Silica-Reaction (ASR). Water transport in samples of damaged and undamaged concrete was measured using in-situ CT. The resulting measurements of water-front movement relative to time and the change in 3D-moisture distribution within the samples, are needed for calibration and validation of water-transport numerical models.
This presentation includes the results of a number of case studies of concrete properties using computed tomography (CT) in combination with various in-situ testing techniques, including those of mechanical loading, water transport, and fire. The results of these case studies demonstrate the potential of CT as an approach for obtaining unique, quantitative data about the structure of materials. This data can serve as the basis for calibrating and validating a new generation of numerical models that have a stronger foundation in micromechanical theory. This will contribute to the development of more accurate and versatile simulation approaches for concrete and other building materials.
The proposed BAM project SealWasteSafe will advance the state of the art for the construction and monitoring of safe sealing systems for underground repositories of radioactive or toxic waste. During this project, a novel salt concrete exhibiting neither significant cracking nor shrinkage will be optimized for use in the sealing systems. The composition of this material will be based on alkali-activated materials, which are characterized by particularly small thermal deformations during the hardening reaction. Quality assurance and continuous monitoring systems developed during this project will be demonstrated not only for high reliability, but also for resistance to highly alkaline environments and to water intrusion along cables or at sensor locations. A variety of sensors will be used in combination with wireless Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology to record moisture, temperature, and, if necessary, corrosion activity within the sealing system. Distributed Fibre Optic Sensor (FOS) technology will also be used for strain, temperature, and moisture content measurement. Ultrasound-based measuring methods will be utilized for the detection of cracks and delaminations. Additionally, digital image correlation and acoustic emission analysis will be used for deformation measurements and crack detection. A novel borehole probe and advanced ultrasound imaging techniques will be further developed to track cracks and delaminations within the host rock in 3D. The surface-based Large Aperture Ultrasound System (LAUS) will also be utilized to detect cracks and delaminations deep below the exterior surface of the sealing system. Although the focus of this project will be on the host rock salt, the resulting technologies will be intentionally developed in a way that facilitates their adaptation to other host rocks.
Intensified Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) damage has occurred on German roadways in recent years, leading to requirements for compulsory pre-construction investigation of aggregate alkali sensitivity using concrete tests with external alkali supply. However, since these tests are time-consuming and cost-intensive, there is interest in replacing them with a solubility test on pure aggregate in 0.1 M KOH solution at 80°C with a defined NaCl content (1wt.-%). In this context, the influence of aggregate pore structure on SiO2 and Al2O3 solubility was investigated in this project. This paper compares the results of porosity studies with X-ray Computed Tomography (3D-CT) and the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method on individual quarried and river gravel granules of both rhyolite and greywacke. For visualization and quantification of both externally accessible and fully enclosed surfaces of granules using X-ray 3D-CT, special software tools were developed. The results demonstrated that the river gravel granules had significantly larger externally accessible surfaces than the quarried granules. BET measurements on individual stones showed, as expected, that measured surfaces were about three orders of magnitude larger than those from the X-ray 3D-CT analyses due to the higher spatial resolution of BET. There was no apparent correlation between the X-ray 3D-CT and BET surface areas. Mercury porosimetry measurements indicate that this may be due to the presence of significant porosity below the spatial resolution of the X-ray 3D-CT. A comparison of SiO2 and Al2O3 solubility measurements with the X-ray 3D-CT and BET surface area data resulted only in weak, inconclusive correlations, indicating the need for further experimental investigation.
In this work, which is part of a larger research program, a framework called “virtual data fusion“ was developed to provide an automated and consistent crack detection method that allows for the cross-comparison of results from large quantities of X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) data. A partial implementation of this method in a custom program was developed for use in research focused on crack quantification in Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR)-sensitive concrete aggregates. During the CT image processing, a series of image analyses tailored for detecting specific, individual crack-like characteristics were completed. The results of these analyses were then “fused” in order to identify crack-like objects within the images with much higher accuracy than that yielded by any individual image analysis procedure. The results of this strategy demonstrated the success of the program in effectively identifying crack-like structures and quantifying characteristics, such as surface area and volume. The results demonstrated that the source of aggregate has a very significant impact on the amount of internal cracking, even when the mineralogical characteristics remain very similar. River gravels, for instance, were found to contain significantly higher levels of internal cracking than quarried stone aggregates of the same mineralogical type.
Durch den großflächigen Einsatz der Computertomographie (CT) in unterschiedlichen Industriebereichen steigen auch die Anforderungen an die quantitative Bildanalyse. Subjektive Bildwahrnehmung muss durch objektive Algorithmen ersetzt werden. In diesem Artikel stellt die Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM), die seit den 1980er Jahren an der Entwicklung der industriellen CT beteiligt ist, anhand ausgewählter Beispiele den aktuellen Stand ihrer Analysemethoden an verschiedenen Anwendungsbeispielen der CT vor.
Für die Festigkeit von faserverstärkten Betonen spielt die beim Gießvorgang hervorgerufene Faseranisotropie eine wichtige Rolle. In den computertomographischen Aufnahmen lässt sich die anhand der Eigenvektoren der Hessianmatrix an der Faser ermittelte räumliche Orientierung der Fasern berechnen und im sphärischen Koordinatensystem darstellen.
Mit für die CT-Anlagen ausgelegten Prüfeinrichtungen ist es möglich mechanische Belastungen, Wärmeeinwirkung und Feuchtetransport in Betonproben während einer CT-Messung durchzuführen. Die Analyse dieser In-situ Messungen erfordert zum Teil speziell auf die Erfordernisse angepasste Auswerteverfahren. Dazu zählen die automatische Rissdetektion oder die Korrektur der Streustrahlung bei der Wasseraufnahme.
Attenuation of ultrasonic signals in concrete has the potential to carry much information about the microstructure of the material. In this work a series of concrete specimens of varying porosities and pore size distributions were internally imaged with x-ray computed tomography (CT), and then subsequently examined with throughtransmission ultrasound. The CT images were used to quantify both capillary porosity of cement paste as well as internal interfaces that are likely to produce elastic wave scattering. Ultrasound signals were represented as a diffusion process such that absorption and scattering attenuation could be isolated. As implemented, the diffusion model was a poor predictor of capillary porosity, while diffusivity was a reasonable predictor of scattering interfaces. Diffusivity was found to scale extremely well with small scale porosity, which made it a good predictor of compressive strength.
The benefits of including fibers in ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) are attributed to their good bond with the matrix and, hence, an optimal utilization of their properties. At the same time, though, fiber reinforcement may contribute to anisotropy in the composite material and induce weak areas. The influence of the fibers’ orientation on the material properties is a matter of current scientific discourse and it is known to play a vital role in structural design. In the case studies presented herein, mechanical laboratory tests using pulsating load regimes on UHPC with a strength of more than 200 MPa were simulated by use of finite element models. The orientations of the fibers were measured for each test sample prior to failure using an X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanner, and these orientations are explicitly implemented into the model. The paper discusses the methodology of merging data retrieved by CT image processing and state-of-the-art FE simulation techniques Moreover, the CT scanning was carried out throughout the testing procedure, which further enables the comparison of the mechanical tests and the FE models in terms of damage propagation and failure patterns. The results indicate that the overall fiber configuration and behavior of the samples can be realistically modelled and validated by the proposed CT-FE coupling, which can enhance the structural analysis and design process of elements produced with steel fiber reinforced and UHPC materials.
With a goal to improve our understanding of the relationships between microstructural features and ultrasonic signal behavior, concrete specimens of varying water-to-cement ratio were imaged using X-ray computed tomography (CT), and subsequently subjected to ultrasonic testing. From the CT scans, measurements were made of cement paste density and number of interfaces. Ultrasonic signals produced using a through-transmission configuration were analyzed and fit to a diffusion model to separate absorption from scattering attenuation. The results showed that at the frequencies tested, ultrasonic dissipation rate correlated weakly with paste density, while diffusivity correlated well with number of interfaces, but only if entrained air is considered separately. Cement paste density was found to be very well predicted by diffusivity, leading to a clear power-law relationship between diffusivity and compressive strength.
Water migration in one-side heated concrete: 4D in-situ CT monitoring of the moisture-clog-effect
(2019)
Explosive spalling due to fire exposure in concrete structures can lead severe damage and, in the worst case, to premature component failure. For this reason, an in situ investigation of water Migration in concrete due to surface heating was undertaken.
During these experiments, a miniaturized concrete specimen within a confining and insulating double-hull was subjected to surface heating during simultaneous X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning. Through the use of subtraction-based Image analysis techniques, it was possible to observe and quantify not only drying within areas of the concrete matrix close to the heated surface, but also the migration of moisture to both pore and matrix regions deeper within the specimen. It was also discovered that the correction of CT images for specimen deformation using DVC and variable detector performance using calibrated image filters significantly improved the quality of the results. This clearly demonstrates the potential of X-ray CT for evaluation of other rapid-density-change phenomena in concrete and other building materials.
Although concrete itself is not a combustible material, concrete mixtures with high density, such has high-performance concretes (HPCs), are susceptible to significant damage during fires due to explosive spalling. Past research has shown that the inclusion of polymer fibres in high density concrete can significantly mitigate this fire damage. The exact mechanisms causing this increased spalling resistance are not yet fully under-stood, but it is thought that the fibres facilitate moisture transport during fire exposure, which in turn contributes to relief of internal stresses in the spalling-susceptible region. In this study, X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) was applied to observe the interaction between polymer fibres and cracking during thermal exposure. For this purpose, two concrete samples containing different polymer fibre types were subjected to incremental application of a defined thermal exposure. CT images were acquired before and after each thermal exposure and powerful image processing tools were used to segment the various material components. This enabled a detailed analysis of crack formation and propagation as well as the visualization and quantification of polymer fibre characteristics within the concrete. The results demonstrated that the orientation of both fibres and cracks in polymer-fibre reinforced concrete tend to be anisotropic. The results also indicated that crack geometry characteristics may be correlated with fibre orientation, with cracks tending to run parallel to fibre beds. Clear quantitative relationships were also observed between heating and increasing cracking levels, expressed in terms of both crack surface area and crack volume.
Thermally-induced moisture transport in high-performance concrete studied by X-ray-CT and 1H-NMR
(2019)
The thermohydraulic damage mechanism is one of the primary causes for explosive spalling of highperformance concrete. This paper presents the spatially- and temporally-resolved analysis of the thermally-induced moisture transport and reconfiguration processes by means of X-ray-CT and 1HNMR.
Thermal testing results for a high-performance concrete, which is sensitive to explosive spalling and which was prepared with and without added polypropylene fibres, are presented in this paper. These results indicate that the addition of fibres leads to a faster and deeper migration of the drying front and, thus, to a lower likelihood of vapour-pressure induced explosive spalling.
This poster provides an overview of ultrasonic investigations of an engineered test barrier at ERAM Morsleben, which were completed as part of contractual work with the Bundesgesellschaft für Endlagerung mbH (BGE). This includes both experiments with the Large Aperture Ultrasound System (LAUS) and the ultrasonic borehole array. Also included in the poster is a description of the planned BAM thematic project “SealWasteSafe”. In particular, the proposed geopolymer materials are described and future research requirements are detailed.
Beton ist das meistbenutzte Baumaterial der Welt. Sein Herstellungsprozess ist auch für schätzungsweise 5% der globalen Kohlenstoffemissionen verantwortlich. Daher können selbst kleine Verbesserungen in der Festigkeit oder Haltbarkeit zu einer erheblichen Verringerung der Bau- und Wartungskosten, der Umweltschäden und der Gefahr für die Menschen führen. Um das grundlegende Verhalten dieses Materials zu verstehen, ist es notwendig, seine Leistung während thermischer, chemischer und mechanischer Prozesse (d. h. in-situ) zu beobachten. Es wird eine zerstörungsfreie Messmethode benötigt, die in der Lage ist, nicht nur Änderungen des Materials wie Feuchtigkeitsumverteilung, Korrosion und Dehnung zu messen, sondern auch die innere Struktur des Materials im Dreidimensionalen aufzulösen, so dass Versagensmechanismen und Transportphänomene direkt auf bestimmte Eigenschaften der heterogenen Materialstruktur bezogen werden können (wie z.B. die Übergangszone zwischen Gesteinskörnungen und Zementstein oder die Orientierung von eingebetteten Fasern).
Die Röntgencomputertomographie (CT) hat sich als ideal für solche Zwecke erwiesen. Neuere Forschungen an der BAM werden vorgetragen, die die Fähigkeiten der CT zur Identifizierung quantitativer Materialeigenschaften wie Faserorientierung, Rissoberfläche, Korrosionsverteilung und Änderungen des volumetrischen Feuchtigkeitsanteils demonstrieren. Der Nutzen dieser leistungsstarken Analysewerkzeuge wird dann anhand der Ergebnisse einer Reihe von Ex-situ und In-situ Testprogrammen für Bedingungen wie mechanische Belastung, Wassertransport und thermische Exposition gezeigt. Speziell entwickelte In-situ Testmaschinen für diese verschiedenen Testprogramme werden ebenfalls beschrieben. Die von der CT gelieferten quantitativen Charakterisierungsinformationen haben sich als ideale Grundlage für die Kalibrierung bzw. Validierung von numerischen Simulationen erwiesen. CT ist auch wesentlich für die Beantwortung von vielen anwendungsspezifischen Fragen, u.a. wie sich verschiedene Gießverfahren auf die Materialleistung auswirken, welche Mineralien sich als Zuschlagstoffe anfällig für langfristige chemische und hydraulische Prozesse erweisen und wie Polymerfasern den Druckaufbau in Beton während der thermischen Belastung beeinflussen.
Um das grundlegende Verhalten des Betons zu verstehen, wird eine zerstörungsfreie Messmethode benötigt, die in der Lage ist, nicht nur Änderungen des Materials wie Feuchtigkeitsumverteilung, Korrosion und Dehnung zu messen, sondern auch die innere Struktur des Materials im Dreidimensionalen aufzulösen, so dass Versagensmechanismen und Transportphänomene direkt auf bestimmte Eigenschaften der heterogenen Materialstruktur bezogen werden können. Die Röntgencomputertomographie (CT) hat sich als ideal für solche Zwecke erwiesen. Diese Präsentation demonstriert die Fähigkeiten der CT zur Identifizierung quantitativer Materialeigenschaften wie Faserorientierung, Rissoberfläche, Korrosionsverteilung und Änderungen des volumetrischen Feuchtigkeitsanteils. Durch die Beschreibung der Ergebnisse einer Reihe von Ex-situ und In-situ Testprogrammen für Bedingungen wie mechanische Belastung, Wassertransport und thermische Exposition, sind auch die Nutzungsmöglichkeiten von diesem Verfahren dargestellt.
Simulating fiber-reinforced concrete mechanical performance using CT-based fiber orientation data
(2019)
The main hindrance to realistic models of fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is the local materials property variation, which does not yet reliably allow simulations at the structural level. The idea presented in this paper makes use of an existing constitutive model, but resolves the problem of localized material variation through X-ray computed tomography (CT)-based pre-processing. First, a three-point bending test of a notched beam is considered, where pre-test fiber orientations are measured using CT. A numerical model is then built with the zone subjected to progressive damage, modeled using an orthotropic damage model. To each of the finite elements within this zone, a local coordinate system is assigned, with its longitudinal direction defined by local fiber orientations. Second, the parameters of the constitutive damage model are determined through inverse analysis using load-displacement data obtained from the test. These parameters are considered to clearly explain the material behavior for any arbitrary external action and fiber orientation, for the same geometrical properties and volumetric ratio of fibers. Third, the effectiveness of the resulting model is demonstrated using a second, “control” experiment. The results of the “control” experiment analyzed in this research compare well with the model results. The ultimate strength was predicted with an error of about 6%, while the work-of-load was predicted within 4%. It demonstrates the potential of this method for accurately predicting the mechanical performance of FRC components.
This paper describes a novel methodology for quantitative in-situ moisture measurement without tracking agents using X-ray computed tomography (XCT). The high levels of grey-scale precision required for the measurement of moisture without tracking agents resulted in the need for an additional image calibration procedure to correct for water-related X-ray scattering and for equipment-variability related artefacts arising during in-situ testing. This calibration procedure was developed on the basis of existing principles of XCT image cor-rection. Resulting images of moisture distribution exhibit a high level of agreement with expected material behaviour. This research demonstrated that XCT can be successfully used to measure both moisture-front movement over time and changes in 3D moisture distribution within samples. This approach to moisture measurement lays the groundwork for the planned future investigation of the interaction between cracking induced by varying chemical and mechanical processes and water transport in concrete.
Die Präsentation demonstriert die Fähigkeiten der Röntgencomputertomographie (CT) zur Identifizierung quantitativer Materialeigenschaften wie Faserorientierung und Korrosionsverteilung sowie die Implementierung von CT-Daten innerhalb numerischer Simulationen. Die besondere Stärke der CT, als zerstörungsfreies Prüfverfahren, ermöglicht es, das Materialverhalten und den Versagensprozess während mechanischer, hydraulischer und thermischer Prozesse zu beobachten. Die Ergebnisse einer Reihe von Ex-situ und In-situ Testprogrammen unter Bedingungen wie mechanische Belastung, Wassertransport und thermische Exposition, stellen die Nutzungsmöglichkeiten dieser Verfahren in Kombination mit der CT in eindrucksvoller Weise dar.
Explosive spalling is caused by, among others, the thermohydraulic spalling mechanism. During this process, vaporization, dehydration, moisture-transport and condensation processes interact. As a result, a drying and dehydration zone as well as a saturated zone, known as a moisture clog, are observed inside the unilaterally-heated concrete. The presented research is focused on the experimental investigation of the underlying thermohydraulic processes.
To investigate these, a test methodology based on X-ray computed tomography (CT) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) was developed. Thereby, the X-ray CT scans are carried out simultaneously during the application of a defined unilateral-heating regime on a specially-constructed specimen. This miniaturized specimen, equipped with a double-layer casing, reproduces the condition within a planar, unilaterally-heated building component.
A preliminary test methodology and the first experimental results were presented at the 5th International Workshop on Concrete Spalling in Borås, Sweden (2017). The contribution for the upcoming workshop presents an improved version of this test methodology and new results for a high-performance concrete (HPC) mixture exposed to temperatures up to 500 °C. Regarding the CT measurements, a higher time-resolution of 15 min was achieved and a quantification of the moisture changes was implemented. Due to an increase in signal quality of the NMR measurements, a pore-size specific moisture distribution can now be resolved. This allows to conclude about the moisture reconfiguration between small gel pores and larger interhydrate pores. Additionally, the NMR measurement are no longer limited to first 2.5 cm below the heated surface but a one-dimensional moisture distribution can now be estimated over the whole 10 cm long specimen.
The presented results demonstrate that the combination of X-ray CT and NMR measurements enables to image and quantify the thermally-induced moisture transport and reconfiguration from small gel pores up to macro pores. This provides important insights into the thermohydraulic damage mechanism and leads to a better understanding of spalling avoidance strategies, like the addition of polypropylene fibres.