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The ability to reliably predict the amount and type of salts within a wet masonry is one of the most important and challenging subjects in the field of non-destructive combat of salt attack and preserving buildings and monuments of historical or archaeological value. To investigate the potential value of complex resistivity (CR) measurements for the early detection of salt and moisture related stone altering, a controlled salt type and concentration experiment series has been performed and a new procedure of an image based effective impedance modelling developed. Complex resistivity magnitude and phase measurements in the frequency range of 1 mHz to 100 Hz were acquired on a wide variety of wholly and partially brine saturated building stone samples. Deteriorating agents NaCl, Na2SO4, CaCl2 and MgSO4 were used. Since water and salt are not measured directly, the method is incapable of deducing possible building damages lacking a priori information. In the case of saturated materials, and provided thorough calibration data are available, a reliable estimate of salt concentration is possible from the measured resistivity magnitude. Additional indication on the dominant cation in the solution can be obtained from the measured resistivity phase, which is significantly higher the lower its valency. Furthermore, the measurements reported in this study give an important guide to the limitations of CR in obtaining pore surface area and pore throat estimates. For wet porous materials, in which polarization occurs due to complex surface conduction, the dominant pore throat and amount of specific surface affect its polarizability. Sandstones, sand-limestones and aerated concretes are more qualified observation objects (pore throats between 20 and 100 μm), whereas for bricks (pore sizes often < 5 μm) the method seems far less favorable. For those materials, which exhibit a Cole-Cole (C-C) type of relaxation, the phase peak is observed to decrease significantly with pore throat size and to occur at higher frequencies. The predicted power-law correlation between the C-C relaxation time and characteristic length scale (pore throat size for consolidated materials) is supported by the presented data. The experimental salinity study reveals how responsive polarization (in terms of imaginary conductivity) is to changing the ionic concentration or composition of the pore fluid. The properties of the electrical double layer and particularly its chemical composition are most likely the crucial controlling factors. The imaginary conductivity is observed to increase for most materials up to fluid salinities of about 1 S/m - a fact, that may be attributed to a mechanism of ion saturation within the electrical double layer; further ion supply seems to counteract this leading to ion-ion interactions, which decrease ionic mobility. CR measurements on partially saturated samples demonstrate the method’s sensitivity to water content. For most materials the imaginary conductivity component decreased significantly faster than the real component. Independent of the pore fluid and even though its salinity naturally increased during the evaporative drying procedure, the normalized saturation exponent of the quadrature component was about twice as high as the real one especially for clay-rich sandstones. The results revealed diverse behavior such as decreases and increases in relaxation time with saturation. In some cases a suppression of a distinctive relaxation curve at low saturations was observed. The results indicate, that contrary to conclusions from recent related studies, the correlation between a C-C relaxation time and hydraulic properties may be limited. In order to infer information on the charge distributions within the EDL, zeta-potentials and surface charge densities were obtained from electroacoustic measurements on particle suspension containing the same amounts and types of salt like used in the brine saturation CR study. The results add weight to the assumption that there is some universal positive relationship between zeta-potential and imaginary conductivity. A notable dependence of imaginary conductivity on diffuse layer surface charge was only observed in case of one sandstone (Cottaer), this being the material with the most abundant clay content. An image based effective impedance modelling approach revealed the fact that, even though it is not able to factor scale effects in, it is helpful to study general microstructural implications on CR responses. It was observed, that an increasing salt concentration (that creates a shrinking electrical double layer) reduces the peak phase and moves it towards higher frequency. The same effect would have an increasing fluid conductivity for a otherwise fixed microstructure. For some combinations of material and salt, however, in the experimental work the peak phase was observed to shift towards lower frequency: a phenomenon that could not be explained with the modelling. Therefore, it is assumed that chemical properties, like ion mobilities or other surface chemistry properties (ionexchange processes) must be regarded to conclusively explain surface conductivity mechanisms. Other experimental observations like the alteration of CR spectra at desaturation could likewise be modelled. If these models truly mimic the effective electrical properties, the results give new implications on the effective medium behavior. Concluding, the author values the complex resistivity method as a possible effective non-destructive testing (NDT) tool for a wide range of building stones. Depending on pore size and saturation important additional information can be obtained. In all cases, a priori information and calibration data are essential, that is, CR should not be treated as a stand-alone method. Further measurements are needed to develop a more complete model of the electrical double layer and its alteration with changing salinity and ion types.
Ground Penetration Radar (GPR) as a non-destructive (NDT)-method can be applied to obtain detailed information about the inner structure and condition of bridges without damaging the structure.
In this paper the capabilities and limitations of the application of the fast inspection technique GPR will be demonstrated.
In addition to GPR investigations, geoelectrical measurements, coring and petrophysical investigations have been carried out.
The investigated railway bridge in Olesnica is a typical European masonry arch bridge (age, construction and span length).
It shows typical damage to the masonry arches such as increasing salt concentration, destruction, material losses and longitudinal cracks.
Radar measurements were carried out with two main objectives: (1) Identification of basic geometric dimensions of the bridge and identification of construction details; (2) Evaluation of the condition of the masonry, such as mechanical damage (e.g. cracks) or variation of the moisture content.
Radar antennas of different frequencies (having different penetration depths) have been used to estimate the thickness of the walls.
Because of the high attenuation in the inner masonry structure the measurements have not produced satisfying results, but the radar measurements have been successfully applied to investigate the moisture distribution in the masonry.
These results have been verified by coring and through geoelectrical measurements.
Cracks were studied at two testing areas at one wing wall of the bridge using an automatic 2D radar scanning system.
The radar data were processed using advanced data processing tools like FT-SAFT reconstruction and data fusion.
The processing sequence allowed the creation of high-resolution depth sections (C-Scans).
Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy – A Tool for Imaging the Chemical Composition of Concrete
(2022)
One of the most common causes of damage is the ingress of harmful ions into the concrete, which can lead to deterioration processes and affect structural performance. Therefore, the increasingly aging infrastructure is regularly inspected to assess durability. Regular chemical analysis can be useful to determine the extent and evolution of ion ingress and to intervene in a timely manner. This could prove more economical than extensive repairs for major damage, particularly for critical infrastructure. In addition to already established elemental analysis techniques in civil engineering such as potentiometric titration or X-ray fluorescence analysis, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) can provide further important complementary information and benefits. The possibilities of LIBS are demonstrated using the example of a drill core taken from a parking garage.
The development of prevention methods and the detection of moisture related damages in buildings and transport infrastructure at an early stage are current issues in the field of non-destructive testing in civil engineering.
Especially the subject of partial saturation requires further research since it is more likely to occur than full saturation of the material. In fact, partial saturation in porous media is even more complicated because both fully and partly saturated pores (i.e. pores in which the surfaces are covered with thin water layers) are present.
As the non-destructive method nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) enables the measurement and quantification of relative low moisture contents, it is suitable for the investigation of partly saturated porous building materials. Nevertheless, the differentiation between partly and fully saturated pores is still a challenge. Therefore, in this study, we investigate two sandstones types (Bozanov and Schönbrunner sandstone) at various defined saturation states by using NMR. Furthermore, we measure the relative humidities within the samples and compute the water layer thicknesses (WLT) along the pore walls of all pore sizes to calculate the corresponding degree of pore saturation. To finally assign the NMR signals to pore sizes and to differentiate between partly and fully saturated pores, the water content distribution obtained from the WLT calculation is used for calibration of the relaxation-time distribution. In this extended abstract, selected results only for Schönbrunner sandstone are presented.