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Offshore-Windenergie betritt Neuland, gerade bei der Gründung. Denn Windenergie auf See kann die Erfahrungen der gängigen Offshore-Konstruktionen der Öl- und Gasindustrie nur bedingt nutzen. Mehr als dort, versucht man bei der Offshore-Windenergie, die Gründungsabmessungen – insbesondere die Pfahllängen – soweit wie möglich zu reduzieren. Denn dies kann bei der hohen Anzahl der Windenergieanlagen erhebliche wirtschaftliche Vorteile bringen. Andererseits wird die Standsicherheit der Gründungen durch den viel höheren Anteil an zyklischen Lasten gegenüber den gängigen Offshore- Strukturen in schwer einschätzbarer Weise zusätzlich gefährdet. Da Offshore-Windenergieanlagen in Serienfertigung produziert werden, wirkt sich hier jeder systematische Fehler bei der Gründung dann gleich als Serienfehler auf eine Vielzahl von Anlagen aus. Überwachung ist also angesagt – und das richtige Maß bei der Pfahlgründung, der am meisten verwendete Fundamenttyp bei Windenergieanlagen.
This talk provides a brief introduction on general engineering challenges for the offshore (marine) wind energy production, focusing on material, structural and hydromechanical aspects.
The talk begins with a broad overview on general trends for offshore wind-farms, with insights on some characteristic structural features and their associated loads. Then, some particular open issues for the foundation of the offshore wind turbines into the seabed are introduced. Here, different research approaches are discussed, from experimental investigations to coupled computational analysis at micro- and macroscopic scales.
In the second part of the seminar, both the hydromechanical Wave–Tower interaction and some general aspects of the windfarm aerodynamics (wake analysis) are discussed. Some modelling possibilities in the frame of CFD (computational fluid dynamics) are introduced and the relevance of such analyses for a proper windfarm layout optimization is pointed out.
Summing up, this seminar aims to show that: i) Numerical analysis of the turbine’s interaction with wind/waves and with the seabed is both useful and affordable. ii) Simplified models can provide an insight into windfarm aerodynamics. iii) Turbulent wake analysis is very relevant for the windfarm layout.
Die Berechnung von Verformungen lateral belasteter Pfahlgründungen bedingt in der Regel die Überführung
der transienten Belastungen aus verschiedenen Umwelteinwirkungen in eine meist sinusförmige
zyklische Belastung mit konstanter Amplitude. Dies bringt die Vernachlässigung der Reihenfolge,
in der die realen Belastungen auftreten, mit sich. Die Voraussetzung dafür ist, dass der Einfluss dieser
Reihenfolge auch tatsächlich gering ist. Da die meisten experimentellen Untersuchung hierzu sich auf
die Elementebene und relativ geringe Zyklenzahlen beschränken, wird hier eine Versuchsserie präsentiert,
in welcher Modellpfähle durch Zyklenpakete mit unterschiedlichen Amplituden in variierender
Reihenfolge und hohen Lastspielzahlen belastet werden. Es zeigt sich ein geringer bis vernachlässigbarer
Einfluss der Reihenfolge der Lastblöcke für reine Schwellbelastungen.
Offshore wind turbines enter unknown territory, especially where the foundations are concerned. This is because offshore wind power can only make use of the experience from the common offshore constructions used by the oil and gas industry to a limited extent. The offshore wind industry has tried to reduce foundation dimensions, especially the pile lengths, as much as possible compared with those of the oil and gas industry. This is because with the large number of wind turbines involved it can provide considerable economic advantages. On the other hand, the stability of the foundations is additionally at risk because due to the much larger number of cyclic loads they are subjected to it is very difficult to predict how they will behave. Since offshore wind farms are manufactured in series, every systematic fault in the foundation acts as a series fault for a large number of turbines. This calls for monitoring – and the right dimensions of pile foundation, the most common type of foundations used for wind turbines
Most railway embankments in the UK were built in the Victorian era and are of end-tipped construction using materials (usually cohesive) excavated from adjacent cuttings, resulting in a clod-and-matrix structure. Historically, there has been a lack in understanding of the mechanical behaviour of such railway embankments. In the next decade railway traffic in the UK, particularly freight, is forecast to grow considerably. Consequently, there is a need to improve the understanding of how increases in rail traffic loading may influence the mechanical behaviour of railway embankments and thus track performance. The Rail Safety and Standards Board in conjunction with Network Rail is currently undertaking a programme of applied research into this topic. As part of these studies a programme of physical model tests has been carried out. Physical model tests can provide high quality data on system performance under a large range of loading conditions and geometrical configurations. The data can be generated rapidly, with test periods of weeks or months rather than years or decades. Additionally, boundary conditions are well-defined and controlled, compared with the complex situations encountered in full scale embankments in the field. This paper summarises the physical model test programme, the development of the test set-up, the tests themselves and the conclusions drawn.
The track on bridges is affected by cyclic and dynamic action arising from the train passage and the reaction of the track supporting structure. Concerning the track, the current bridge design procedures include two major engineering tasks: On the one hand the stability of the track supported on the bridge deck has to be satisfied. In order to reduce the deterioration of the track the elasticity of the track has to be adapted for the stiff bridge deck. Furthermore, lateral stability has also to be satisfied. The vibration of the bridge structure has to be taken into account because it can affect the stability of the ballasted track. On the other hand the transition zone between bridge structure, abutment and the track on the subgrade is a matter of permanent concern. The changes in stiffness, in the dynamic behavior arising from the rolling stock and the relative deflection between the bridge structure and the abutment induce a nearly unavoidable problem for the long term behaviour on the track.
BAM has conducted intensive experimental work to study the behaviour of the ballasted track on dynamically excited bridges. The state of the art is a design value for the deck acceleration of 0.35 g as established in the ENV 1991-1. In our experimental investigations the design value was verified. The influence of a frequency content higher than 30 Hz and of single vibration amplitudes on the track deterioration was evaluated. Both vertical and lateral stability were investigated. The influence of vibrations on the lateral stability can be more severe since the lateral stability could involve a sudden failure of the track. Furthermore, a simulation tool was developed to calculate the lateral stability on a vibrating bridge deck. For this simulation tool a parameter study was undertaken [1] where combinations of the curvature of the bridge-track system, the design temperature and the bridge deck vibrations were investigated. Parts of this study are incorporated in this paper.
In a current research project the investigations are extended to the interaction of the train-track-dynamics and the long term behaviour of the transition zone. The main emphasis is on the integration of the possible deterioration of the structural components in the numerical modelling of the relevant structural elements of the vehicle, the bridge and bridge abutment structure. An outlook is given to a complete model for the assessment of the track behaviour at railway bridges.
This paper deals with the system identification of a mechanical structure supported by nonlinear springs subjected to an external load. If all mechanical parameters of the system were known, the displacement of the system subjected to this load could be easily calculated. However, the monitoring applications often deal with the inverse problem. The loads and displacements of the system are known and certain mechanical Parameters of the system are sought. The solution of such inverse problems can be difficult, especially when they have a nonlinear and multimodal character, which often makes them appear intractable at first sight. However, evolutionary computing can be applied to solve this inverse, nonlinear and multimodal problem. Sometimes a prior knowledge exists on certain system properties, which is difficult to implement into analytical or numerical solvers. This knowledge can play a decisive role in identifying the System properties and it can be easily included as a boundary condition when applying evolutionary algorithms.
This article discusses how and under what conditions the unknown spring resistances can be identified. The practical application of this procedure is exemplified here with the mechanical system of a pile foundation.
State of the art and development perspectives of deep foundations for offshore wind converters
(2020)
This presentation provides an overview of the main geotechnical aspects associated with deep foundations in the context of offshore wind generation. The most common deep foundation typologies (large diameter monopiles and multipile typologies) as well as new trends under development (e.g. suction buckets) and their current limits will be briefly described. The talk concludes with a brief review of advanced topics not covered in classical pile design, such as hydromechanical coupling effects (pore pressure generation), cyclic accumulation of deformations, cyclic degradation of axial capacity or pile-setup gains.
The stability and geometric nonlinearities of slender structures are a major topic in structural design. While this topic is most relevant in the field of Structural Engineering, e.g. for steel or concrete structures, only few applications take the role of soil-structure-interaction explicitly into account. The focus of this paper is placed on the impact of soil support and its modelling for the buckling analysis based on examples both for pile foundations and for railway track stability. The general interaction between steel design and the geotechnical input will be addressed. The paper discusses and summarizes a range of subtopics based on experience and current research at the author’s institute.
Schieflagen bitte vermeiden
(2016)
Vieles ist möglich, auch auf dem Meeresboden. Wind und Wellen rütteln gemeinsam an der Gründung, den Fundamenten der Offshore-Windenergieanlagen. Hinzu kommen die „ganz normale“ Strömung sowie die in der Nordsee besonders ausgeprägten Gezeiten von Ebbe und Flut. Zudem kann am Meeresboden Porenwasserüberdruck entstehen, der den Boden lockern und im schlimmsten Fall bei Monopiles die Stabilität der gesamten Anlage ändern kann. Selbst wenn ein solcher in den Meeresboden gerammter Pfahl bis zu 8 Meter Durchmesser hat. Über die Hälfte der geplanten Offshore-Anlagen in Nord- und Ostsee werden mit Ein-Pfahl-Gründungen geplant, über 40 % sollen als Mehrpfahl-Gründungen, zum Beispiel als Tripod, ausgeführt werden. Von daher verdienen Pfahlgründungen und ihre Belastungen besondere Aufmerksamkeit. Denn eines gilt es im Anlagenbetrieb unbedingt zu vermeiden: Eine drohende Schiefstellung der Anlage
Relevant factors for the liquefaction susceptibility of cyclically loaded offshore monopiles in sand
(2013)
The offshore foundations may exhibit a relatively high liquefaction susceptibility due to the full saturation of the porous seabed and the cyclic nature of the typical offshore loads. Here, the particular relevance of some of the main factors that affect the liquefaction susceptibility of an offshore monopile will be addressed, focusing on the possibility of a progressive accumulation of residual pore water pressure within the saturated soil around a monopile under cyclic lateral loading. The discussion is based on numerical results obtained with a coupled FE model of the offshore foundation which includes the Biot-Zienkiewicz u-p model. A constitutive model of the Generalized Plasticity type has been used for the soil in order to reproduce important features of its behaviour under cyclic loading. This paper presents the findings derived from a parametric study of the problem and shows that the accumulation of residual pore pressure can produce significant changes of the pile's behaviour under external loading. The paper also investigates the effects caused by the loading from a realistic storm of moderate magnitude and the consequential transient degradation of the foundation's stiffness.
Relevant Factors for the Liquefaction Susceptibility of Cyclically Loaded Offshore Monopiles in Sand
(2013)
The surface erosion of soil samples caused by an impinging jet can be analyzed using the jet erosion test (JET), a standard experimental test to characterize the erosion resistance of soils. This paper specifically addresses the flow characteristics of a laminar impinging jet over the irregular surface of granular beds to discuss the pertinence and relevance of commonly used empirical estimations based on a selfsimilar model of a free jet. The JET is here investigated at the microscale with a coupled fluid-particle flow numerical odel featuring the lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) for the fluid phase combined with the discrete element method (DEM) for the mechanical behavior of the solid particles. The hydrodynamics of a laminar plane free jet are confronted with the results from a parametric study of jet impingement, both on solid smooth and fixed granular surfaces, that take into account variations in particle size, distance from jet origin, and jet Reynolds number. The flow characteristics at the bed surface are here quantified, including the maximal values in tangential velocity and wall shear stress, which can be regarded as the major cause of particle detachments under hydrodynamic solicitation. It is shown that the maximal velocity at the impinged surface can be described by the free jet self-similar model, provided that a simple empirical coefficient is introduced. Further, an expression is proposed for the maximal shear stress in laminar conditions, including a Blasius-like friction coefficient that is inversely proportional to the square root of the jet Reynolds number. To conclude, finally, the JET erosion of different cohesionless granular samples is analyzed, confirming that the threshold condition at the onset of granular motion is consistent with the Shields diagram and in close agreement with previous experimental results.
Sand densification around the pile has traditionally been regarded as an explanation for the grain migration and soil subsidence that often occur around cyclic laterally loaded piles embedded in sand. Supported by new empirical evidence, this paper proposes that, additionally to some soil densification around the pile, the main cause for the continuous "steady-state" grain migration is a convective cell flow of sand grains in the vicinities of the pile head. Such convective flow would be caused by a ratcheting mechanism triggered by the cyclic low-frequency lateral displacements of the pile. Furthermore, the experimental results suggest that the limit between the convective cell and the static soil is marked by a distinct direct shear surface. This might shed some light into the complex phenomena related to the pile-soil interaction in the upper layers of the bedding, which are normally the main contributor for the lateral load-bearing capacity of piles.
In this contribution, we consider two applications in which probabilistic approaches can potentially complement or enhance the design and assessment of offshore wind turbine foundations. First, we illustrate in a numerical example that probabilistic modelling can be helpful in dealing with chang-es in turbine locations during the planning phase of an offshore wind farm. In this case, spatial probabilistic modelling of the ground conditions enables (a) an inference of the soil properties at the modified turbine location from field data collected at different locations across an offshore wind farm site and (b) an optimisation of further site investigations. Second, we discuss the uncer-tainties and risks associated with the installation of large diameter monopiles in soils with hetero-geneities such as strong layers and/or embedded boulders. Subsequently, we present a concept for modelling, understanding, and managing these risks based on a probabilistic model of the subgrade conditions, monopile, and subgrade-pile-interaction.
Porenwasserdruckaufbau und Bodenentfestigung um Pfahlgründungen von Offshore-Windenergieanlagen
(2012)
Die Gründung von Offshore-Windenergieanlagen erfordert oft die Installation von Stahl-Pfählen mit großem Durchmesser, entweder als Monopile- oder Mehrpfahl-Konfiguration (Jacket, Tripod, usw.). In dieser Veröffentlichung werden die Auswirkungen einer zyklischen lateralen Belastung auf Offshore-Pfahlgründungen untersucht. Hierbei wird besonderes Augenmerk auf die Entwicklung des Porenwasserdrucks im umgebenden gesättigten Boden gelegt. Es wird gezeigt, dass der progressive Aufbau von Porenwasserdruck zu erheblichen Veränderungen des Verhaltens der Gründung unter externer Belastung führen kann, die die Stabilität bzw. Gebrauchstauglichkeit der Anlage potenziell gefährden. Dazu werden auch einige Effekte, die während eines realistischen Sturms von moderater Stärke entstehen, untersucht. Die transiente Abminderung der Gründungssteifigkeit wird hierbei thematisiert. Die genannten Aspekte wurden von den Autoren mittels eines gekoppelten zweiphasigen numerischen Modells der Offshore-Gründung untersucht. Das verwendete Stoffgesetz für den Boden, im Rahmen der Theorie der verallgemeinerten Plastizität, kann wichtige Merkmale von zyklischem Bodenverhalten reproduzieren, wie z. B. die Tendenz zu einer fortschreitenden Verdichtung unter zyklischer Belastung, die für Verflüssigungsphänomene unter undränierten Bedingungen verantwortlich ist. Die Notwendigkeit der Verwendung eines solchen Ansatzes wird hier anhand von Vergleichsberechnungen mit einem einfacheren Stoffmodell bzw. mit einem ungekoppelten Modell erörtet. Abschließend werden einige Implikationen der untersuchten Fragenstellungen für die praktische Bemessung von Offshore-Monopiles diskutiert und spezifische Empfehlungen gegeben.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
For the installation of wind turbines in the offshore environment and their foundation in the seabed it is customary to employ large-diameter steel piles, either in monopile or multi-pile configurations (jacket, tripod, etc. ...). The effects of cyclic lateral loading on the offshore piles and particularly the possibility of a progressive accumulation of residual pore water pressure within the saturated embedding soil are discussed in this article. Here it is shown that this can lead to significant changes of their behaviour under external loading, which can potentially compromise the foundation's stability or serviceability. Furthermore, some of the singular effects arising during a realistic storm of moderate magnitude as well as their potential for transient damages to the foundation's stiffness are addressed in the paper. For the investigation of these phenomena the authors have employed a coupled bi-phasic analytical model of the offshore foundation. The constitutive model employed for the seabed, in the frame of the theory of Generalized Plasticity, can reproduce some complex features of cyclic soil behaviour such as the tendency for a progressive densification under cyclic loading, which is responsible for the soil liquefaction phenomena in undrained conditions. Finally, some implications and specific recommendations for the design of offshore monopiles in the frame of the limit states are provided.