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The present work demonstrates a sustainable approach of using relatively coarser iron ore particles for ironmaking. The motivation is to reduce the energy consumption in the milling of the iron ore by utilizing coarser iron ore particles (+0.05 mm) and to select a suitable binder for improving pellet properties. Iron ore fines in the range of 0.05–0.25 mm was selected and classified into three size ranges. Fluxed iron ore pellets were prepared using lime as a binder for the basicity of 0, 1, and 2. Reduction of these pellets with a packed bed of coal fines was performed in the temperature range of 900–1200 °C for a duration of 30–120 min. The direct reduction kinetics of the iron ore pellets were studied by employing diffusion and chemical reaction control models to the experimental data. The results show that pellets made with coarser iron ore particles have improved reduction behavior and kinetics. The reduction reaction is found to be a mixed control. The activation energy for the reduction reaction varies from 44.3 to 74.76 kJ mol−1 as iron ore particle size decreases from 0.25 to 0.05 mm and basicity increases from 0 to 2.
Calcium sulfate hemihydrate (CaSO4ᐧ0.5H2O), also known as bassanite, has been used as a precursor to produce gypsum (dihydrate, CaSO4ᐧ2H2O) for various construction and decorative purposes since prehistoric times. The main route to obtain hemihydrate is a thermal treatment of gypsum at temperatures typically between 150 °C and 200 °C to remove some of the structural water.
In this contribution, we introduce (Fig. 1) a more efficient and sustainable method (T < 100 °C) that enables the direct, rapid, and reversibly conversion of gypsum to bassanite using reusable high salinity aqueous solutions (brines with c[NaCl] > 4 M). The optimum conditions for the efficientproduction of bassanite in a short time (< 5 min) involve the use of brines with c(NaCl) > 4 M and maintaining a temperature, T > 80 °C. When the solution containing bassanite crystals is cooled down to around room temperature, eventually gypsum is formed. When the temperature is raised again to T > 80 °C, bassanite is rapidly re-precipitated. This contrasts with the typical behaviour of the bassanite phase in low salt environments.
Traditionally, hemihydrate is obtained through a solid state thermal treatment because bassanite is considered to be metastable with respect to gypsum and anhydrite in aqueous solutions, and therefore gypsum-to-bassanite conversion should not occur in water. Its very occurrence actually contradicts numerical thermodynamic predictions regarding solubility of calcium sulfate phases. By following the evolution of crystalline phases with in situ and time-resolved X-ray diffraction/scattering and Raman spectroscopy, we demonstrated that the phase stability in brines at elevated temperatures is inaccurately represented in the thermodynamic databases. Most notably for c(NaCl) > 4 M, and T > 80 °C gypsum becomes readily more soluble than bassanite, which induces the direct precipitation of the latter from gypsum. The fact that these transformations are controlled by the solution provides extensive opportunities for precise manipulation of crystal formation. Our experiments confirmed that bassanite remained the sole crystalline structure for many hours before reverting into gypsum. This property is extremely advantageous for practical processing and efficient crystal extraction in industrial scenarios.
Here, we show that calcium sulfate dihydrate (gypsum) can be directly, rapidly and reversibly converted to calcium sulfate hemihydrate (bassanite) in high salinity solutions (brines). The optimum conditions for the efficient production of bassanite in a short time (<5 min) involve the use of brines with c(NaCl) > 4 M and maintaining a temperature, T > 80 °C. When the solution containing bassanite crystals is cooled down to around room temperature, eventually gypsum is formed. When the temperature is raised again to T > 80 °C, bassanite is rapidly re-precipitated. This contrasts with the better-known behaviour of the bassanite phase in low-salt environments. In low-salinity aqueous solutions, bassanite is considered to be metastable with respect to gypsum and anhydrite, and therefore gypsum-to-bassanite conversion does not occur in pure water. Interestingly, the high-salinity transformation of gypsum-to-bassanite has been reported by many authors and used in practice for several decades, although its very occurrence actually contradicts numerical thermodynamic predictions regarding solubility of calcium sulfate phases. By following the evolution of crystalline phases with in situ and time-resolved X-ray diffraction/scattering and Raman spectroscopy, we demonstrated that the phase stability in brines at elevated temperatures was inaccurately represented in the thermodynamic databases. Most notably for c(NaCl) > 4 M, and T > 80 °C gypsum becomes readily more soluble than bassanite, which induces the direct precipitation of the latter from gypsum. The fact that these transformations are controlled by the solution provides extensive opportunities for precise manipulation of crystal formation. Our experiments confirmed that bassanite remained the sole crystalline phase for many hours before reverting into gypsum. This property is extremely advantageous for practical processing and efficient crystal extraction in industrial scenarios.