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Grey makes a claim for countertransference similar to one Millán makes for transference, namely that Fromm's work can be seen as providing a more inclusive view of countertransference. Grey builds his case examining Fromm's views in regard to the unconscious, the motivational structure of character and countertransference. Grey points out that Fromm's view of the unconscious differed in several ways from Freud's. Fromm saw the unconscious as containing primitive and irrational elements, but also as the source of penetrating insights that transcend the strictures of society. Moreover, Grey sees Fromm as a modern thinker. Fromm had little use for Freud's energetic metapsychology. Fromm conceived of the unconscious in terms of processes, avoiding the danger of reification. Grey notes that Fromm explicitly discussed the >filtering< role imposed by language and social norms that limit the range of human experience. Grey notes that Fromm's theoretical views are more consistent with contemporary models of the mind such as that of Lazarus (1991). According to Grey, Lazarus's work (1991) describing the importance of the appraisal function of emotions legitimizes the role of intuition as a valid and important component of the analyst's repertoire in understanding and responding to patients. Grey argues that Fromm's revision of Freud's dualistic drive model also contributed to the analyst's use of self in work with patients by calling attention to the importance of social and constructive motives. Fromm's model of human nature was an important corrective over Freud's view of man as essentially evil. Fromm's motivational theory supports the analyst's intuitive responses as trustworthy guides in the therapeutic process without having to debunk altruistic motives as sublimations or reaction formations. According to Grey, what this all adds up to is that the use of self advocated by Fromm differs markedly from earlier views of countertransference. This is another aspect of Fromm's contribution that has not yet received the recognition it deserves in current efforts to examine the intersubjective nature of the psychoanalytic dialogue (Stolorow et al. 1987) Despite the enormous advantages over the Freudian model, Fromm's ideal of development, the >productive character,< is in Grey's estimate, misleading. Actual studies of productive personalities show, according to Grey, that >the very circumstances that favor one particular productive attribute tend to discourage another.<
Work Role and Private Self
(1988)
Discusses whether alienation is more prevalent in postindustrial societies than in preindustrial ones. 2 distinct forms of alienation are identified: noncommitment and overconformity. The former involves a sense of estrangement from others and the prevailing values of scoiety; the latter stems from self-estrangement and lack of awareness of one's own needs. A review of available cross-cultural evidence failed to support the Marx-FROMM hypothesis that automation conformity increases directly with industrialization and greater use of mechanical automata. It is concluded that each type of alienation arises under different societal conditions.
Society as Destiny
(1992)
Investigated is Erich FROMM's concept of social character (see, eg, >The Sane Society<, New York: Rinehart, 1955), which refers to aspects of personality shared in a society, or subsociety, due to socialization effects resulting from common exposure to the same institutional practices, notably to efforts of economic institutions. FROMM proposes that within complex Western societies, the same language is used differently in differing socioeconomic groups. These theses are tested against the results of several empirical studies, including one that compared the treatment of psychiatric patients of middle- and lower-class origins (Grey, Alan, >Social Class and the Psychiatric Patient: A Study in Composite Character<, Contemporary Psychoanalysis, 1966, 2, 87-121). Results indicate that FROMM's prediction of greater alienation among the middle class is not sustained, but that there are other significant class differences. In general, FROMM's conceptualization provides a useful tool for integrating social science with clinical psychoanalysis.