55 Geowissenschaften, Geologie
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Biogeomorphology from space
(2021)
In the arid and semi-arid climate of Central Asia, the endorheic rivers and their ecosystems play a crucial role as regional hotspots of biodiversity and for the provision of ecosystem services for local people. The Naryn River in Kyrgyzstan as the object of interest of this thesis is one of these rivers. On a flow length of more than 600 km, it is still in a widely natural condition making it an interesting study object in a world where most large rivers are distorted by anthropogenic activities. Despite this relevance, no comprehensive scientific studies are available about the Naryn River except water resource related research. In particular, large scale information about the structure and functioning of the Naryn River system from an interdisciplinary perspective is missing. Against this background, this thesis aims to fill the research gap and deliver up-to-date information about the Naryn River corridor with a special focus on biogeomorphology, i.e. the dynamic interaction between hydromorphology and vegetation. First, this thesis delivers the necessary background information about the Naryn River corridor including a general overview, an assessment of ecosystem services, a field based overview of the structure of the riparian ecosystems and an in-depth analysis of hydrology. Basing upon this background, remote sensing methods adapted to the data-scarce environment of Central Asia are used to derive various parameters of the structure of the Naryn River on the scale from reaches to the entire river corridor. Then, the large scale biogeomorphological structures and dynamics are assessed based on dense time series of multispectral satellite imagery. From the results, it becomes obvious that the structure of the corridor of the Naryn River is heterogeneous and mainly controlled by geological contraints. Only in a laterally unconfined segment, dynamic braided river reaches can form. In these reaches, the majority of biogeomorphological interactions take place. The outcome of this thesis is on the one hand the provision of large scale and up-to-date information about the structure and functioning of the Naryn River corridor as a basis for further research or decision making. On the other hand, this thesis presents innovative remote sensing methods for large scale characterization of river corridors. In particular, an approach for the characterization of dynamic processes of biogeomorphological interactions on a large scale is developed based on time series analysis of satellite imagery. This approach can complement biogeomorphological research on smaller spatial scales by delivering spatially and temporally continuous information for entire river corridors. This has the potential to obtain new insights of the processes and emergence of structure in river systems across multiple scales.
The Tarim River, located along the northern and eastern borders of the Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang, Northwest China, is about 1320 km long and thus one of the longest continental inland waterways in the world. In an undisturbed state, it is accompanied on both sides by floodplain forests of Euphrates Poplar (Populus euphratica Oliv.), also known as “Tugai Vegetation” or “Tugai Forests”. These forests form typical desert riparian forests as the so-called “Green Corridor” and prevent the two deserts, the Taklamakan and the Kuruk-Tagh, from merging together. At present, large areas that were originally P. euphratica riparian forests have disappeared, with the remaining areas in critical condition. Specifically, the greatest threats over the past few decades have been the rising water consumption in the upper and middle reaches and massive hydro-technical interventions (construction of embankments and dams) in the development of uncultivated land (including the direct clearance of forests) for cotton production. These have led to widespread destruction of the natural ecosystems, particularly in the lower reaches of the river where about 320 km of the floodplain forests are either highly degraded or dead as the result of nearly 30 years of river desiccation. As a consequence of these deteriorations, land desertification has been aggravated and has expanded in the region. Because of the challenges facing this ecosystem, restoration measures with the diversion of “Emergency Ecological Water” have been implemented in the affected areas since 2000. This new process of recovery measures needs efficient and extensive long-term monitoring. In this thesis, current restoration measures as implemented to date are presented and hydrological dynamics as a function of water diversion are analysed. The structure, distribution and health statues (referred to as “vitality”) of the dominant species Populus euphratica have been monitored by measuring Eco-morphological parameters of more than 5000 trees in two sampling sites (a 100-ha permanent plot and five random sampling plots of 50-m radii) at Arghan village in the lower reaches of the Tarim River in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China. The effects of restoration measures on the revitalization of degraded trees have been analysed and assessed by using individual-based repeated measurements of the tree data. From a long-term point of view, and taking labour intensity and the high cost of tree height measurements into account, a suitable height-diameter model for obtaining the tree height (TH) of P. euphratica based on the diameter at breast-height data (DBH) has been developed and evaluated. The average annual groundwater depth within 300 m of the river channel at different transects (Yingsu, Karday, Arghan) recovered significantly after a second water diversion in 2001. The same rising trend in groundwater level was retained until 2004, started to decline until 2009, and then rose again until the end of the water diversion in 2011. The Mann-Kendall statistical trend test was applied to the mean monthly and annual groundwater depth of six groundwater wells at different distances from the river on the Arghan transect. The trend test for the whole time series period from 2003 to 2011 indicated that there was a statistically significant decreasing trend for all wells, but that from January 2010 to December 2011 the groundwater level in all wells had a statistically significant increase. With the exception of a relatively favourable groundwater depth for floodplain forests within a 150 m distance of the riverbed, the groundwater depth at larger distances remained far below 5 m, causing most forest plants (with the exception of the Tamarix sp.) to suffer from water scarcity. Analyses of forest structure, distribution and health status suggested that a maximum TH of 19 m was found within 0-20 m and 100-200 m of the river. By contrast, a maximum DBH of 126 cm was found within 500-600 m of the river. Trees with a TH of over 15 m and a DBH of over 60 cm appeared sporadically. The maximum CD (crown diameter) of 16.58 cm (one tree) was found next to the river bed. There was a relatively great variation in DBH when compared to TH and other eco-morphological parameters. On average, stand structure tended to be simpler as distance from the river increased. Trees classified as healthy and good accounted for approximately 40 % of all sample trees, with slightly and highly degraded trees representing nearly 60 %. Some of the eco-morphological parameters of the trees vary differently with respect to the ecological water diversion measures. In particular, in the vertical (north-south) direction, the farther the trees are from the river, the weaker the response of ecological indicators. These parameters include: tree vitality classes (VS), crown diameter (CD), height to crown (HC), frequency of root suckers, number of young seedlings, and shoot growth, as well as newly developed crown types of P. euphratica trees. Generally, the floodplain forests within 200 m of the riverbed recovered remarkably, and those between 200 and 800 m from the river showed a medium response to the water transfer, while forests further than 800 m away from the riverbed showed lesser signs of recovery. Following the evaluation and comparison of the results from ten commonly used models by means of multiple-model performance criteria (such as asymptotic t-statistics of model parameters, standardized residuals against predicted height, the root-mean-square error (RMSE), Akaike’s information criterion (AIC), mean prediction error (ME) and mean absolute error (MAE)), Model (1): TH=1.3+a/(1+b×e^(-c×DBH)) and Model (6): TH=1.3+DBH^2/(a+b×DBH+c×DBH^2) are recommended as suitable choices for approximating the height-diameter relationship of P. euphratica. The limitations of the other models, resulting in poor performance for predicting TH accurately, are also discussed.
Glacier retreat due to climate change is significant and well investigated on a
regional scale. Much less is known about local effects, especially in the proglacial
area. This thesis focuses on glacial changes and new methods to tackle the processes
therein. The glacial changes within the catchment of the river Fagge, in the upper
Kaunertal valley, are investigated by combining different direct glaciological, geodetic
and geophysical methods. Alongside long-term monitoring of glacier flow velocities
at adjacent glaciers, the investigation focuses on the glacier tongue of Gepatschferner.
In addition to the direct measurements of the ice motion and the determination of the
surface mass balance, the ice thickness and the thickness of subglacial sediments is
measured with vibroseismic soundings. Changes in total area, elevation and volume
are calculated from multiple high-resolution digital elevation models from airborne
laser scans. These detailed glaciological investigations are part of the joint project
PROSA, which focuses on the geomorphodynamics of the entire proglacial system
and aims at balancing the sediment budget therein.
The presented cumulative doctoral thesis consists of three publications and additional
results from the glaciological part of PROSA. This includes long-term
monitoring of glacier flow velocities (Paper 1), detailed investigations of the process
development of a surface depression at the tongue of Gepatschferner (Paper 2), and
an approach at closing the balances of ice, water and sediments on the glacier tongue
(Paper 3).
It turned out that the formation of circular and funnel-shaped surface depressions
occurs as a consequence of increased glacier retreat rates. Additionally, the process
of the depression development in turn increases the retreat rates. This exemplary
development was caused by the evacuation of subglacial sediments after a heavy
precipitation event and by decreasing glacier dynamics as a result of negative glacier
mass balances. Beside the mass balances, the horizontal motion and especially the
vertical motion of the glacier provide valuable information on the glacier state, such
as measured in the long-term program on Kesselwandferner. The magnitudes of the
mass exchanges showed the influence of extreme events, which exceed mean daily
and even annual turnovers, as well as the role of the melt water production at the
glacier tongue of Gepatschferner and its severe effect on the glacial runoff regime of
the river Fagge.
This doctoral thesis explores a paradigm of sustainable land use in the oases along the Tarim River of northwest China, where a fragile, semi-arid riparian ecosystem is being deteriorated by excessive land and water use for agriculture, in particular for the growing of cotton. This situation poses a grave threat not only to the natural Tugai vegetation in the area but also to the long-term sustainability of the region.
We explore the hypothesis that the species Apocynum pictum may act as a sustainable crop substitute for the region, thereby replacing the water-demanding and widely distributed cash crop, cotton. This idea is motivated by the former having a lower water demand, as well as a number of other traditional and modern uses. To substantiate this hypothesis, a multidisciplinary research scheme has been designed, permitting the analyses of both the ecological and socio-economic potentials of this plant, its potential benefits relative to cotton and a comprehensive analysis of its productivity, water demand and economic potentials. This analysis is divided into three distinct sections.
Biomass and nutrient analysis: Field investigations were conducted to sample biomass and map the spatial distribution of Apocynum pictum (abbreviated as A. pictum) at five selected sites. At each site, 3-5 plots were randomly selected and the point center quarter method, as outlined by Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg (1974), was applied for biomass sampling. Concurrently, soil profiles were dug at each site so as to obtain soil samples from the various layers and electrical conductivity was measured as a mean of investigating soil salinity. These steps are essential for determining the physical and production basis for alternative land-use considerations.
The results obtained show that the total above-ground biomass ranges from 0.6 t/ha (Qongaral 1) to 1.25 t/ha (Xayar 1), and that the total below-ground biomass of A. pictum is at 11.25 ± 5.41 t/ha. The biomass of A. pictum, relatively moderate when compared to other steppe and desert ecosystems, reflects strains of soil and water conditions for plant growth in desert margins.
Evapotranspiration and water budget: Evapotranspiration (ET) is a key component of water balance and is closely linked to ecosystem productivity. Climate parameters were measured with mobile climate stations to calculate reference crop evapotranspiration (ET0) via the Penman-Monteith equation. Diurnal foliar transpiration and conductance were measured with a porometer to calculate canopy resistance. Leaf samples were photographed and analyzed for the leaf area index (LAI) in the study area so as to calculate crop evapotranspiration under standard conditions (ETc) and crop factors (Kc). Finally, the water consumptions of A. pictum and cotton were calculated and compared so as to identify which is better suited for dry environments.
The results show that cotton in this study attained a high yield compared to the world average, and at a rather low ETc. Among the three plants tested, A. pictum required the least amount of water during the vegetation season with 217.2 mm a year, while the Chinese red date came close second with 339 mm and cotton was least water-efficient with 524.7 mm, thus demonstrating the viability of A. pictum as an alternative with significant water-saving potential.
Economic analysis: Purposive sampling was used, with relevant participants in the study being approached by flow population and snowballing or chain sampling methods. The desired information was then obtained via a structured-questionnaire survey. Three natural resource management types of Apocynum were identified and a cost-revenue analysis was carried out for each.
The results show that all three types of institutional arrangements – open access, ranching and farming – are present in our study and at various levels. Apocynum costs 1083.35 Yuan/mu, generates 3267.63 Yuan/mu of revenue from raw materials and brings a profit of 2184 Yuan/mu – the highest among of all three cash crops compared.
We conclude that A. pictum offers opportunities for the restoration of vegetation in riparian ecosystems on salinized sites under the arid conditions of the Tarim Basin, while also serving as a viable land-use alternative to cotton for cash crop agriculture, as it may generate a certain income in the form of tea and fibers, as well as fodder for livestock.