TY - JOUR A1 - Henke, Marina T1 - Buying Allies: Payment Practices in Multilateral Military Coalition-Building JF - International Security N2 - Many countries serving in multilateral military coalitions are "paid" to do so, either in cash or in concessions relating to other international issues. This article examines whether these payment practices follow a systematic pattern. It suggests that 'pivotal states' provide the means to cover such payments. These states reason that rewarding third parties to serve in multilateral coalitions holds important political benefits. Moreover, two distinct types of payment schemes exist: deployment subsidies and political side-deals. Three types of states are most likely to receive such payments: (1) states that are inadequately resourced to deploy; (2) states that are perceived by the pivotal states as critical contributors to the coalition endeavor; and (3) opportunistic states that perceive a coalition deployment as an opportunity to negotiate a quid pro quo. Using hundreds of declassified archival sources as well as elite interviews, the article illustrates these practices with historical examples from the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Gulf War, the U.S. intervention in Iraq, the NATO intervention in Afghanistan, the UN-AU mission in Darfur, and the AU mission in Somalia. The theory and evidence presented in this article generate new insights into how security cooperation comes about, and how burden-sharing works in practice. Moreover, it raises important questions about the efficiency and effectiveness of such payment schemes in multilateral military deployments. Y1 - 2019 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1162/ISEC_a_00345 VL - 43 IS - 4 SP - 128 EP - 162 ER - TY - BOOK A1 - Henke, Marina T1 - Constructing Allied Cooperation: ​​Diplomacy, Payments and Power in Multilateral Military Coalitions N2 - This book examines how diplomatic networks allow states to organize collective action. It thereby focuses on one of the areas of international cooperation where such collective action is the most difficult to achieve: multilateral military coalitions. The book argues that such coalitions seldom emerge naturally due to common interests, norms, values, or alliance commitments. Rather, coalitions are purposefully constructed by pivotal states. These states instrumentalize bilateral and multilateral networks, or what I term diplomatic embeddedness, to bargain fellow states into a specific coalition. Via these networks, pivotal states have access to private information on deployment preferences of potential coalition participants. Moreover, these connections facilitate issue-linkages and side-payments. Finally, pivotal states can use common institutional contacts (i.e., IO officials) as cooperation brokers and convert common institutional venues into coalition negotiation fora. The theory and evidence presented in this book generate new insights on how states cooperate in international affairs and the importance of diplomacy and diplomatic ties therein. KW - Diplomacy, Power, Military Y1 - 2019 SN - 9781501739699 PB - Cornell University Press CY - Ithaca, New York ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Henke, Marina T1 - Networked Cooperation: How the European Union Mobilizes Peacekeeping Forces to Project Power Abroad JF - Security Studies N2 - How does the European Union (EU) recruit troops and police to serve in EU peacekeeping missions? This article suggests that pivotal EU member states and EU officials make strategic use of the social and institutional networks within which they are embedded to bargain reluctant states into providing these forces. These networks offer information on deployment preferences, facilitate side-payments and issue-linkages, and provide for credible commitments. EU operations are consequently not necessarily dependent on intra-EU preference convergence—as is often suggested in the existing literature. Rather, EU force recruitment hinges on highly proactive EU actors, which use social and institutional ties to negotiate fellow states into serving in an EU missions. KW - European Union, Power, Peacekeeping Y1 - 2019 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2019.1662480 SN - 1556-1852 VL - 28 IS - 5 SP - 901 EP - 934 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Henke, Marina T1 - Tony Blair’s Gamble: The Middle East Peace Process and British Participation in the Iraq Campaign in 2003 JF - British Journal of Politics and International Relations N2 - Tony Blair tried throughout the preparatory phase of the US-led Iraq intervention in 2003 to influence US policy on the Middle East Peace Process (MEPP). This article tries to understand how Blair fared in this endeavor. Using newly declassified documents, it examines the circumstances under which the US administration listened and engaged with British ideas regarding the MEPP and when and why it ignored British requests. The study shows that Blair was able to extract the greatest US concessions on the MEPP in moments when Great Britain’s participation in the Iraq campaign was the most uncertain. The findings promote fresh thinking on how, when and why the UK can influence US decision-making. KW - Tony Blair, Middle East, Peace, Iraq Y1 - 2018 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1177/1369148118784708 VL - 20 SP - 1 EP - 17 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Henke, Marina A1 - Maher, Richard T1 - The populist challenge to European defense JF - Journal of European Public Policy Y1 - 2021 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2021.1881587 VL - 28 IS - 3 SP - 389 EP - 406 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Henke, Marina T1 - A tale of three French interventions: Intervention entrepreneurs and institutional intervention choices JF - Journal of Strategic Studies N2 - What factors explain the institutional shape of military interventions spearheaded by France? This article suggests that Intervention Entrepreneurs are the deciding agents. To secure the viability of their intervention proposal, they select an intervention venue based on pragmatic grounds. Most importantly, they carefully study possible domestic and international opposition to their intervention plans and conceive institutional intervention choices accordingly. The result is an ad hoc selection of intervention venues with little impact of political ideology, norms, organizational interests, or historical learning. Moreover, on many occasions, little attention is paid to the question: Which intervention format would most benefit the peace and prosperity in the conflict theatre in the medium to long term? The article illustrates this argument by tracing French institutional decision-making for interventions in Chad/CAR, Mali and Libya. KW - Intervention Y1 - 2020 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2020.1733988 VL - 43 IS - 4 SP - 583 EP - 606 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Henke, Marina T1 - Für uns oder gegen uns? Zwingt Amerika Deutschland zu einer Entscheidung zwischen den USA und China? JF - Der Hauptstadtbrief Y1 - 2020 UR - https://www.derhauptstadtbrief.de/fuer-uns-oder-gegen-uns/ ER - TY - CHAP A1 - Henke, Marina ED - Richmond, Oliver ED - Gëzim, Visoka T1 - Great Power Involvement in Peace Operations T2 - The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Peace and Conflict Studies Y1 - 2020 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11795-5_55-1 SP - 1 EP - 6 PB - Palgrave Macmilian UK ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Henke, Marina T1 - The Rotten Carrot: Reexamining U.S.-Turkish Bargaining Failure over Iraq in 2003 JF - Security Studies N2 - Side-payments are commonly used in international relations to alter the foreign policies of states. Despite their frequent usage, however, our understanding is very limited when it comes to why certain side-payment negotiations succeed while others fail. This article tries to remedy this shortcoming. It argues that social embeddedness between actors involved in the negotiations has a major bearing on bargaining outcomes. Under ideal circumstances, social relationships can be used to reduce information asymmetries and increase trust. Nevertheless, in the presence of fractured social networks, social ties can foster information bias and distrust thus ultimately increasing the likelihood of bargaining failure. This article uses U.S.-Turkish bargaining failure over the Iraq intervention in 2003 to illustrate and test this theory. KW - Iraq, USA, Turkey Y1 - 2017 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/09636412.2017.1360077 VL - 27 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Henke, Marina T1 - The Politics of Diplomacy: How the United States builds Multilateral Military Coalitions JF - International Studies Quarterly N2 - The conventional wisdom advances that formal alliance structures guide military coalition-building processes: allies band together because they share threat perceptions, political ideology, norms and values. This article suggests otherwise. It proposes that U.S.-led coalition-building is first and foremost a diplomatic process influenced by bilateral and multilateral institutions other than formal alliances. The breadth of institutions matters because it allows accessing information on the potential coalition partner's deployment preferences that are not only related to the security aspect of the operation but also its political, economic and other facets. In addition, diplomatic embeddedness offers linkage opportunities between military and non-military interests, which facilitates the construction of side-payments. KW - Diplomacy, Politics, Military, Coalitions Y1 - 2017 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqx017 VL - 61 SP - 1 EP - 15 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Henke, Marina T1 - Why did France intervene in Mali? Examining the Role of Intervention Entrepreneurs JF - Canadian Foreign Policy Journal N2 - Intervention Entrepreneurs are the key to understanding the political processes leading up to a military intervention and thus ultimately why military interventions come about. Intervention entrepreneurs are private citizens, bureaucrats, associations and groups which lobby for intervention. In this process they follow a similar playbook to promote their intervention proposal. This playbook contains five different tasks: (1) creating a narrative for intervention; (2) selling the narrative; (3) building a domestic coalition supportive of the intervention; (4) creating faits accomplis that accelerate the path toward intervention and (5) lobbying the head of state in favor of the intervention proposal. This article illustrates these five tasks by means of a case study of the decision-making process that led to the French intervention in Mali (2013). KW - France, Mali, Intervention Y1 - 2017 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/11926422.2017.1352004 SN - 2157-0817 VL - 23 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Henke, Marina T1 - UN Fatalities 1948-2015: A New Dataset JF - Conflict Management and Peace Science N2 - This article presents a new dataset on UN peacekeeping fatalities that occurred during 1948-2015. The data includes five types of fatality counts: total fatalities, fatalities caused by accidents, illness, malicious acts (i.e., hostile deaths) and a fourth category marked 'other incident types.' For every UN operation during 1948-2015, data on the number of these four types of UN fatalities are coded at the yearly as well as monthly level. The monthly data also indicate the nationality of the deceased. KW - Conflict Management, Peace, UN Y1 - 2017 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1177/0738894216686789 VL - 36 SP - 1 EP - 18 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Henke, Marina T1 - Has UN Peacekeeping become more deadly? Trends in UN Fatalities JF - Providing for Peacekeeping N2 - This article examines trends in UN peacekeeping fatalities using a new dataset on UN fatalities. The principal findings of the article are as follows: fatality rates and ratios due to accidents and malicious acts are on the decline. Nevertheless, the same cannot be said for illness-related fatality rates and ratios. Indeed, this report provides strong evidence, that UN fatalities due to illness follow an upward trajectory: increasingly troops, police and military observers die due to illness-related causes while serving in UN missions. KW - Peacekeeping, UN Y1 - 2016 UR - https://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/1612_Peacekeeping-Fatalities.pdf VL - 14 ER - TY - JOUR A1 - Henke, Marina T1 - Great Powers and UN Force Generation: A case study of UNAMID JF - International Peacekeeping N2 - How are UN peacekeepers recruited? While we know a lot about UN member states’ general predispositions to participate in UN peacekeeping operations, we know very little about the actual UN force generation process. What role do the UN and its powerful member states play in this process? How do they interact to recruit UN forces? This article seeks answers to these questions by means of an in-depth case study of the force generation process for the UN–AU operation to Darfur (UNAMID). KW - Power, UN, UNAMID, Peacekeeping Y1 - 2016 U6 - https://doi.org/10.1080/13533312.2016.1154460 VL - 23 ER - TY - RPRT A1 - Gilli, Andrea A1 - Gilli, Mauro A1 - Grgić, Gorana A1 - Henke, Marina A1 - Lanoszka, Alexander A1 - Meijer, Hugo A1 - Scaglioli, Lucrezia A1 - Silove, Nina A1 - Simón, Luis A1 - Smeets, Max T1 - Strategic Shifts and NATO’s new Strategic Concept Y1 - 2022 UR - https://www.ndc.nato.int/news/news.php?icode=1716 SN - 2618-0057 IS - NDC Research Paper No.24 PB - NATO Defense College CY - Rome ER - TY - RPRT A1 - Henke, Marina T1 - The “dos and don’ts” of strategy making Y1 - 2022 UR - https://www.ndc.nato.int/news/news.php?icode=1678 SN - 2617-6009 PB - NATO Defense College CY - Rome ER -