@article{KasrinKreyenfeldLenzeetal., author = {Kasrin, Zein and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Lenze, Anne and Zabel, Cordula}, title = {Alleinerziehende M{\"u}tter im SGB II-Bezug: Welche Bedeutung hat Unterhalt und Unterhaltsvorschuss f{\"u}r die Existenzsicherung?}, series = {Neue Zeitschrift f{\"u}r Familienrecht}, volume = {12}, journal = {Neue Zeitschrift f{\"u}r Familienrecht}, number = {8/2025}, issn = {2198-2333}, pages = {378 -- 382}, language = {de} } @article{MolinaAlonsoPerezKreyenfeld, author = {Molina, Stefania and Alonso-Perez, Enrique and Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {Divorce and Mental Health: Is Late Divorce Particularly Harmful for Women with Low Earnings?}, series = {Social Indicators Research}, journal = {Social Indicators Research}, publisher = {Springer Science and Business Media LLC}, doi = {10.1007/s11205-025-03721-8}, abstract = {This paper examines the relationship between divorce and mental health, with a focus on how this association is stratified by sex, age, and individual income. In particular, we test the hypothesis that divorce at advanced ages (50-59) is particularly harmful for women with insufficient personal earnings. Data is drawn from German register data, which includes marital histories of divorcees and diagnosed health outcomes. The analytical sample includes persons aged 30-59 in 2015 (n = 23,426,639). The outcome is the annual incidence of mental disease diagnosis which is examined from an intersectional approach by drawing on MAIHDA (Multilevel Analysis of Individual Heterogeneity and Discriminatory Accuracy). Our findings indicate that women are at a higher risk of receiving a mental health diagnosis than men. Divorce significantly amplifies this risk. Additionally, low income poses a heightened risk for both women and men, particularly when divorce occurs at advanced ages.}, language = {en} } @techreport{Kreyenfeld, type = {Working Paper}, author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {Stellungnahme zum „Entwurf eines Gesetzes {\"u}ber die statistische Erhebung der Zeitverwendung (Zeitverwendungserhebungsgesetz - ZVEG)"}, doi = {10.48462/opus4-3781}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b1570-opus4-37818}, pages = {14}, abstract = {Die Zeitverwendungsstudie ist, neben Mikrozensus und Einkommens- und Verbrauchsstichprobe, eine der zentralen amtlichen Befragungen, die ein differenziertes Bild {\"u}ber die Zeitverwendung der Bev{\"o}lkerung nach sozio-demographischen Merkmalen liefert. Da schon Personen ab 10 Jahren befragt werden, ist sie zudem eine der wenigen Befragungen, die Einblicke in den Tagesablauf, die Zeitpr{\"a}ferenzen und auch den Zeitstress von Kindern und Jugendlichen liefert. Die Befragung umfasst Zeitinformationen f{\"u}r unterschiedlichste Bereiche - u.a. Freizeit, Pflege, Ehrenamt, Mobilit{\"a}t und Kinderbetreuung -, die in anderen Befragungen unterbelichtet sind. Zu Recht wird auf das Potenzial dieses Datensatzes verwiesen alternative Wohlstandsmaße bereitzustellen. Im vorliegenden Gesetzesentwurf werden vor allem die Erhebungsmerkmale festgelegt. Neben etablierten Fragebatterien werden auch neue Batterien aufgenommen. Mit der Integration einer neuen Frage zum „Kontakt zu eigenen Kindern, die nicht im Haushalt leben", sollen erstmalig auch haushalts{\"u}bergreifende Informationen zu Kindern erhoben werden. Dieser Schritt ist zu begr{\"u}ßen. Dennoch kann die Zeitverwendungsstudie in der vorgesehenen Form die Lebenswirklichkeiten von Trennungseltern und -kindern nicht hinreichend abbilden. Konkret wurden folgende Punkte in dieser Stellungnahme hervorgehoben: • Erstens wurde angeregt, Anstrengungen zu unternehmen Stieffamilien abzugrenzen. Dies w{\"u}rde es nicht nur erm{\"o}glichen, die Lebens- und Familienformen zeitgem{\"a}ß zu erfassen, sondern ebenfalls das v{\"a}terliche Engagement in der Kinderbetreuung ad{\"a}quater abzubilden. • Zweitens wurde kritisch vermerkt, dass Trennungseltern, die von ihren Kindern getrennt leben, nicht abgegrenzt werden k{\"o}nnen. Es kann auch nicht quantifiziert werden, in welcher Weise diese Eltern Zeit mit ihren Kindern verbringen. Es wird zwar dezidiert abgefragt, in welcher Weise „Unterst{\"u}tzung f{\"u}r andere Personen geleistet werden, die nicht Teil der Haushaltsgemeinschaft sind". Die Betreuungsleistungen, die dem eigenen getrennt lebenden Kind entgegen gebracht werden, werden hingegen nicht erfasst (bzw. gehen in dieser Item-Batterie unter). Gleichermaßen gilt dies f{\"u}r die Betreuungsleistungen, die ein Haushalt durch den getrennt lebenden Elternteil empf{\"a}ngt. • Drittens wurde vermerkt, dass eine Erfassung von migrationsspezifischen Indikatoren in Befragungen (wie Sprache, Geburtsland der Eltern) grunds{\"a}tzlich sinnvoll ist. Jedoch wurde kritisch hinterfragt, ob dies ebenfalls f{\"u}r die Zeitverwendungsstudie gilt, in der keine Substichprobe f{\"u}r Personen mit Migrationshintergrund vorgesehen ist und die Befragung nur in deutscher Sprache durchgef{\"u}hrt wird. • Viertens wurde angeregt, nicht nur die Erhebungsmerkmale in den Blick zu nehmen, sondern auch Augenmerk auf die Methodenweiterentwicklung zu richten. Gleichermaßen sollten M{\"o}glichkeiten von L{\"a}ngsschnittbefragungen und „abgespeckten" Befragungen in k{\"u}rzeren Befragungswellen ausgelotet werden.}, language = {de} } @techreport{AlonsoPerezMcEvoyRamosetal., type = {Working Paper}, author = {Alonso-Perez, Enrique and McEvoy, Olan and Ramos, Vincent and O'Sullivan, Julie Lorraine and Liebig, Stefan and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Lersch, Philipp and Bazzani, Giacomo and Guetto, Raffaele and Vignoli, Daniele and Heisig, Jan and Solga, Heike and Gellert, Paul}, title = {Cognitive Pretest of a Factorial Survey Experiment on Future Narratives and Family Care}, doi = {10.48462/opus4-4174}, url = {http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:kobv:b1570-opus4-41744}, pages = {16}, abstract = {Within the Preparation Module for the Einstein Center for Population Diversity (ECPD), diverse research institutions came together to provide new survey instruments for the innovation sample in the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP-IS). With the goal of collecting insightful information about future narratives and family care, central topics of the ECPD research endeavor, factorial survey was chosen as a suitable method. A preliminary set of vignettes was designed conjointly, and before proceeding with the large-scale survey, a series of cognitive pretests were conducted to examine comprehensibility and context effects. In this study we describe the design and analysis of these cognitive pretests, with a special focus on the process of designing the final survey informed by the pretests' feedback.}, language = {en} } @article{NaujoksKreyenfeldDummert, author = {Naujoks, Tabea and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Dummert, Sandra}, title = {The division of child care during the coronavirus crisis in Germany: How did short-time work affect fathers' engagement?}, series = {Journal of Family Research}, journal = {Journal of Family Research}, doi = {10.20377/jfr-717}, abstract = {Objective: This paper examines how participation in the short-time work scheme affected the gendered division of child care during the COVID-19 crisis in Germany. Background: Short-time work (Kurzarbeit) has been one of the main policies used to combat the economic and labour market repercussions of the coronavirus pandemic in Germany. We examine whether and, if so, how the growing prevalence of short-time work has affected care patterns. Method: We use data from the IAB-HOPP, a longitudinal study monitored by the German Institute for Employment Research (IAB). The analytical sample includes couples with children aged 12 and younger. We employ multinomial logistic regressions in which the outcome variable is the change in the division of care work from a period before to a period during the coronavirus crisis (June to October 2020). Results: We find that among men, receiving short-time work benefits resulted in more gender-equal care patterns. The positive effect of short-time work on the division of child care is moderated by the level of education. Fathers with low or medium education are more likely to increase their child care share when receiving short-time work benefits compared to fathers with high education. However, we also find that participating in the short-time work programme had no strong or significant effects on the gendered division of care among women. Conclusion: The evidence from this study suggests that men's working time is a major vehicle to change the gendered division of care in couple households.}, language = {en} } @article{AlonsoPerezGellertKreyenfeldetal., author = {Alonso-Perez, Enrique and Gellert, Paul and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and O'Sullivan, Julie Lorraine}, title = {Family Structure and Family Climate in Relation to Health and Socioeconomic Status for Older Adults: A Longitudinal Moderated Mediation Analysis}, series = {International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health}, volume = {19}, journal = {International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health}, number = {18}, doi = {10.3390/ijerph191811840}, abstract = {Family characteristics are associated with individuals' health and wellbeing. However, the link between family structure (e.g., operationalized via marital status) and health outcomes is ambiguous, and whether family climate mediates the relationship is unclear. This study uses the Biobehavioral Family Model (BBFM) to investigate the association of older adults' family structure with later health, the mediating role of family climate and mental health and how these links vary by socioeconomic status (SES). Using data from n = 29,457 respondents aged over 50 in Waves 4, 5 and 6 (2011, 2013 and 2015) of the Survey of Health, Retirement and Ageing in Europe (SHARE), the BBFM was applied in a longitudinal mediation analysis of family structure and health, including both indicators of mental and physical health. Structural equation modeling was applied, and a multigroup analysis was performed to test the role of SES in a moderated mediation. Family climate and mental health mediated the relationship between family structure and subsequent physical health. Good levels of family climate were found to be consistently associated with improved mental and physical health. These relationships were significantly moderated by SES, showing that the association of family climate and health was weaker for those in low SES positions. Family climate and mental health should be considered as potential mechanisms linking family structure to later physical health outcomes across time; however, these associations are diminished for those with low SES.}, language = {en} } @periodical{ZartlerSuwadaKreyenfeld, author = {Zartler, Ulrike and Suwada, Katarzyna and Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {Family Lives during the COVID-19 Pandemic in European Societies}, series = {Journal of Family Research}, journal = {Journal of Family Research}, number = {1}, edition = {43}, doi = {10.20377/jfr-2022-34-1}, language = {en} } @periodical{KreyenfeldDiehlKrohetal., author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Diehl, Claudia and Kroh, Martin and Giesecke, Johannes}, title = {Employment and Family Behaviour after Migration}, series = {Journal of Family Research}, volume = {Special Issue}, journal = {Journal of Family Research}, number = {33}, doi = {10.20377/jfr-2021-33-2}, language = {en} } @article{WalperKreyenfeld, author = {Walper, Sabine and Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {The intensification of parenting in Germany: The role of socioeconomic background and family form}, series = {Social Sciences}, volume = {11 (3)}, journal = {Social Sciences}, number = {134}, doi = {10.3390/socsci11030134}, abstract = {Drawing on the international discourse on the intensification of parenting and new data from Germany, this paper aims to contribute to a better understanding of the unique challenges that parents face in the 21st century. We used data from the survey "Parenthood Today", which was conducted in 2019 to examine parents' views on parenting in Germany. The data comprised standardized interviews with 1652 mothers and fathers. We focused on three dimensions of parental pressures: namely, time pressure, financial pressure, and pressure that emanates from the educational system. Time pressure referred to the pressure currently felt, whereas financial pressure and pressure from the educational system referred to changes across time. In each of these domains, more than 60\% of the parents experienced high (time) or increasing (education and financial) pressure. Binary logistic regressions showed that while parental education was a strong predictor of experiencing an increase in financial pressure, parental education did not matter for other realms of parenting. However, employment and family form were strongly related to parental time pressure. Full-time employed lone mothers, but also non-resident fathers, reported experiencing heavy pressure when trying to balance their roles as a worker and as a carer. Our results draw attention to the importance of better integrating the needs of post-separation families, including of non-resident fathers, in the debate on the "intensification of parenting".}, language = {en} } @incollection{KreyenfeldKonietzka, author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Konietzka, Dirk}, title = {Sozialstruktur und Familienformen}, series = {Handbuch Familiensoziologie}, booktitle = {Handbuch Familiensoziologie}, editor = {Hill, Paul B. and Kopp, Johannes}, publisher = {Springer VS}, isbn = {978-3-658-02276-1}, doi = {10.1007/978-3-658-02276-1_12}, publisher = {Hertie School}, pages = {345 -- 373}, abstract = {Der Beitrag beschreibt die Grundz{\"u}ge des sozialstrukturellen Wandels der Lebensformen in Deutschland. Zun{\"a}chst werden Konzepte und theoretische Ans{\"a}tze zur Erkl{\"a}rung von Lebensformen und familialen Verhaltensweisen skizziert. Anschließend werden Strukturen und Wandel der Lebens- und Familienformen in Ost- und Westdeutschland nach 1990 auf der Grundlage des Mikrozensus und des deutschen Beziehungs- und Familienpanels (pairfam) empirisch untersucht. Dargestellt werden die altersspezifische Verteilung der Lebensformen, der Wandel der Familienformen von Frauen und M{\"a}nnern seit den 1990er Jahren sowie bildungsspezifische Entwicklungen. Weiterhin beleuchtet der Artikel an den Beispielen des {\"U}bergangs zur Mutterschaft und der nichtehelichen Lebensgemeinschaft die kohortenspezifi sche Lebenslaufdynamik von Familienformen. Schließlich wird mit Stieff amilien ein in der empirischen Forschung bislang wenig untersuchter Aspekt der Differenzierung der Familienformen aufgegriffen.}, language = {de} } @article{Kreyenfeld, author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {Getrennte Eltern, geteilte Betreuung}, series = {DJI Impulse}, volume = {1/22}, journal = {DJI Impulse}, pages = {38 -- 41}, language = {de} } @techreport{WalperKreyenfeldBebloetal., type = {Working Paper}, author = {Walper, Sabine and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Beblo, Miriam and Hahlweg, Kurt and Nebe, Katja and Schuler-Harms, Margarete and Fegert, J{\"o}rg M. and f{\"u}r Familienfragen, Wissenschaftliche Beirat}, title = {Gemeinsam getrennt erziehen. Gutachten des Wissenschaftlichen Beirats f{\"u}r Familienfragen beim Bundesministerium f{\"u}r Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend}, abstract = {Gemeinsam getrennt erziehen" ist das Thema des heute ver{\"o}ffentlichten Gutachtens des Wissenschaftlichen Beirats f{\"u}r Familienfragen beim BMFSFJ. Das Gutachten gibt einen umfassenden {\"U}berblick {\"u}ber Trennungsfamilien in Deutschland. Immer mehr Eltern w{\"u}nschen sich vor, aber auch nach einer Trennung ihre Kinder gemeinsam zu betreuen. Deshalb legt das Gutachten den Fokus auf Familien, die eine geteilte (asymmetrische wie symmetrische) Betreuung leben. Internationale Vergleiche zeigen, wie geteilte Betreuung anderswo gelebt wird und wo es Reformbedarf gibt.}, language = {de} } @article{ZartlerSuwadaKreyenfeld, author = {Zartler, Ulrike and Suwada, Katarzyna and Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {Family lives during the COVID-19 pandemic in European Societies: Introduction to the Special Issue}, series = {Journal of Family Research}, volume = {34}, journal = {Journal of Family Research}, number = {1}, doi = {10.20377/jfr-808}, pages = {1 -- 15}, abstract = {Objective: This chapter introduces the reader to the Special Issue "Family Lives during the COVID-19 Pandemic in European Societies". Background: This Special Issue analyses how families, parents, and children have been affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, and how they have been coping with its related challenges in different societal contexts. Method: The studies collected in this Special Issue are based on qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods approaches and data that have been gathered during 2020 in a range of European countries. It covers the first lockdown period, the reopening phases, and the months thereafter. Results: The 20 contributions of this Special Issue show that families shouldered large responsibilities during the pandemic. While the pandemic did not lead to radical shifts in gendered care patterns, mothers and fathers experienced the pandemic differently, with mothers reporting higher levels of stress. Moreover, there was great heterogeneity in how different types of families and children were affected by the pandemic. Single parents and parents and children in low-income households were most strongly affected in their social and economic wellbeing. Social and economic distress are strongly interwoven, and the developments during the pandemic aggravated existing social disparities. Conclusion: This Special Issue underlines the importance of the family for the functioning of societies during times of crisis. It also shows that policy makers often adopted a too narrow view of what constitutes a family and did not adequately address family diversity in their decision making. This Special Issue furthermore emphasized that there is a danger that the pandemic will increase disparities between families. Thus, parents and their children need adequate support measures that are tailored to their needs, and that are designed to alleviate these social, economic and educational disparities.}, language = {en} } @article{BrueggmannKreyenfeld, author = {Br{\"u}ggmann, Daniel and Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {Earnings Trajectories After Divorce: The Legacies of the Earner Model During Marriage}, series = {Population Research and Policy Review}, volume = {42}, journal = {Population Research and Policy Review}, doi = {10.1007/s11113-023-09756-4}, abstract = {Divorce marks the legal endpoint of a marital union. While divorce is increasingly seen as a 'clean break', the past marital history of the couple may nevertheless shape their present conditions. In particular, there may be a legacy of a highly gendered division of labour during marriage that may affect the ex-spouses' earning trajectories beyond the date of divorce. Using register data from the German Pension Fund, we examine the earning trajectories of heterosexual couples who filed for a divorce in 2013 (24,616 men and 24,616 women). Using fixed-effects and matching techniques, we compare the earning trajectories of divorcees with those of a control group of married persons in the period spanning two years before and two years after divorce. In particular, we examine how the earner models divorcees followed during marriage shaped their future earning trajectories. Our results show that, on average, the earnings of a divorced woman in a male breadwinner constellation increased after divorce, while the earnings of her male ex-spouse declined. Nevertheless, large gender differences in earnings persisted: 2 years after separation, a divorced woman who had been in a male breadwinner constellation was, on average, earning 72\% less than her ex-spouse. We discuss our findings against the background of recent policy reforms in Germany, which assume that ex-partners should be economically 'self-reliant' after divorce.}, language = {en} } @incollection{KreyenfeldSprengholzSchieckoff, author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Sprengholz, Maximilian and Schieckoff, Bentley}, title = {Frauen. Arbeit mit Hindernissen}, series = {Atlas der Migration: Neue Daten und Fakten {\"u}ber Menschen in Bewegung}, booktitle = {Atlas der Migration: Neue Daten und Fakten {\"u}ber Menschen in Bewegung}, editor = {Bussemer, Johanna and Albrecht, Franziska and Riethm{\"u}ller, Dorit and Jakob, Christian}, publisher = {Rosa-Luxemburg-Stiftung}, address = {Berlin, Germany}, publisher = {Hertie School}, pages = {42 -- 43}, language = {de} } @techreport{LambertKreyenfeld, type = {Working Paper}, author = {Lambert, Philippe and Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {Exogenous time-varying covariates in double additive cure survival model with application to fertility}, publisher = {arXiv}, doi = {10.48550/arXiv.2302.00331}, abstract = {Extended cure survival models enable to separate covariates that affect the probability of an event (or `long-term' survival) from those only affecting the event timing (or `short-term' survival). We propose to generalize the bounded cumulative hazard model to handle additive terms for time-varying (exogenous) covariates jointly impacting long- and short-term survival. The selection of the penalty parameters is a challenge in that framework. A fast algorithm based on Laplace approximations in Bayesian P-spline models is proposed. The methodology is motivated by fertility studies where women's characteristics such as the employment status and the income (to cite a few) can vary in a non-trivial and frequent way during the individual follow-up. The method is furthermore illustrated by drawing on register data from the German Pension Fund which enabled us to study how women's time-varying earnings relate to first birth transitions.}, language = {en} } @article{MolinaWagnerKreyenfeld, author = {Molina, Stefania and Wagner, Lena and Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {Women's economic independence and physical intimate partner violence (IPV) during separation}, series = {PLOS One}, volume = {20}, journal = {PLOS One}, number = {6}, publisher = {Public Library of Science (PLoS)}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0326529}, abstract = {A growing number of studies have addressed the issue of intimate partner violence (IPV). While some studies have shown that women's economic independence reduces the risk of physical IPV, the empirical evidence is still inconclusive. In particular, little is known about the factors that are associated with the likelihood of experiencing physical IPV during the immediate separation process. We use data from the German Family Panel (pairfam) for the years 2009-2022. The analytical sample consists of women who went through a separation since the last interview (n = 786 person-years). We use logistic regression models to examine the determinants of physical IPV during separation. We find that mothers with minor children have significantly higher odds of experiencing physical IPV during separation than women who do not have minor children (OR=1.96, p=.006), controlling for key sociodemographic characteristics. Low education as well as non-employment are associated with higher risks of physical IPV during separation for both women with and without minor children. However, non-employment is a particular risk factor for mothers with lower levels of education. Divorce and separation, especially when minor children are involved, can be a highly stressful time when partner conflict escalates and, in some cases, culminates in violence against the partner. This paper highlights the importance of maternal labor market integration and economic independence as a lever to potentially reduce physical IPV and conflict during separation.}, language = {en} } @incollection{KreyenfeldSchmauckMika, author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Schmauck, Sarah and Mika, Tatjana}, title = {Der Wandel der Lebensformen und seine Bedeutung f{\"u}r die Alterssicherung in Deutschland}, series = {Gerechte Rente: Sozialethische Perspektiven einer interdisziplin{\"a}ren Sondierung der Alterssicherung}, booktitle = {Gerechte Rente: Sozialethische Perspektiven einer interdisziplin{\"a}ren Sondierung der Alterssicherung}, editor = {Karger-Kroll, Anna and Sch{\"a}fers, Lars}, publisher = {Nomos}, isbn = {978-3-7560-1712-6}, publisher = {Hertie School}, language = {de} } @article{KreyenfeldKonietzkaLambertetal., author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Konietzka, Dirk and Lambert, Philippe and Ramos, Vincent Jerald}, title = {Second Birth Fertility in Germany: Social Class, Gender, and the Role of Economic Uncertainty}, series = {European Journal of Population}, volume = {39}, journal = {European Journal of Population}, doi = {10.1007/s10680-023-09656-5}, abstract = {Building on a thick strand of the literature on the determinants of higher-order births, this study uses a gender and class perspective to analyse second birth progression rates in Germany. Using data from the German Socio-Economic Panel from 1990 to 2020, individuals are classified based on their occupation into: upper service, lower service, skilled manual/higher-grade routine nonmanual, and semi-/unskilled manual/lower-grade routine nonmanual classes. Results highlight the "economic advantage" of men and women in service classes who experience strongly elevated second birth rates. Finally, we demonstrate that upward career mobility post-first birth is associated with higher second birth rates, particularly among men.}, language = {en} } @article{AlonsoPerezHeisigKreyenfeldetal., author = {Alonso-Perez, Enrique and Heisig, Jan Paul and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Gellert, Paul and O'Sullivan, Julie Lorraine}, title = {Intersectional inequalities in the transition to grandparenthood and cognitive functioning: A longitudinal Multilevel Analysis of Individual Heterogeneity and Discriminatory Accuracy (MAIHDA)}, series = {The Journals of Gerontology: Series B}, journal = {The Journals of Gerontology: Series B}, doi = {10.1093/geronb/gbae088}, abstract = {Objectives In aging societies, more people become vulnerable to experiencing cognitive decline. Simultaneously, the role of grandparenthood is central for older adults and their families. Our study investigates inequalities in the level and trajectories of cognitive functioning among older adults, focusing on possible intersectional effects of social determinants and grandparenthood as a life course transition that may contribute to delaying cognitive decline. Methods Using longitudinal data from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe, we analyzed a sample of 19,953 individuals aged 50-85 without grandchildren at baseline. We applied Multilevel Analysis of Individual Heterogeneity and Discriminatory Accuracy to investigate variation in cognitive functioning across 48 intersectional strata, defined by sex/gender, migration, education, and occupation. We allowed the impact of becoming a grandparent on cognitive functioning trajectories to vary across strata by including random slopes. Results Intersectional strata accounted for 17.43\% of the overall variance in cognitive functioning, with most of the stratum-level variation explained by additive effects of the stratum-defining characteristics. Transition to grandparenthood was associated with higher cognitive functioning, showing a stronger effect for women. Stratum-level variation in the grandparenthood effect was modest, especially after accounting for interactions between grandparenthood and the stratum-defining variables. Discussion This study highlights the importance of social determinants for understanding heterogeneities in older adults' level of cognitive functioning and its association with the transition to grandparenthood. Cumulative disadvantages negatively affect cognitive functioning, hence adopting an intersectional lens is useful to decompose inequalities and derive tailored interventions to promote equal healthy aging.}, language = {en} } @article{BoguszMatysiakKreyenfeld, author = {Bogusz, Honorata and Matysiak, Anna and Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {Structural labour market change, cognitive work, and entry to parenthood in Germany}, series = {Population Studies}, journal = {Population Studies}, doi = {10.1080/00324728.2024.2372018}, abstract = {Technological change and globalization have caused unprecedented transformations of labour markets, resulting in a growing division between workers who perform cognitive vs non-cognitive tasks. To date, only few studies have addressed the fertility effects of these long-term structural changes. This study fills that gap. We measure the cognitive task content of occupations using data from the Employment Survey of the German Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training, which we link to individual histories from the German Socio-Economic Panel 1984-2018. We find that women and men with non-cognitive jobs are increasingly less likely to enter parenthood; this is reflected in lower first-birth intensities but also in higher probabilities of childlessness compared with workers in highly cognitive jobs. These findings imply that structural shifts in the labour market are exacerbating disparities between low-skilled and highly skilled individuals, not only within the labour market but also in the realm of family formation.}, language = {en} } @incollection{KreyenfeldNaujoks, author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Naujoks, Tabea}, title = {Arbeitsteilung in Partnerschaften und soziale Ungleichheit}, series = {Handbuch Sozialstrukturanalyse}, booktitle = {Handbuch Sozialstrukturanalyse}, editor = {B{\"o}hnke, Petra and Konietzka, Dirk}, publisher = {Springer VS}, address = {Wiesbaden}, isbn = {978-3-658-39759-3}, doi = {10.1007/978-3-658-39759-3_49-1}, publisher = {Hertie School}, abstract = {Im Zentrum des folgenden Beitrags steht die Darstellung des Zusammenhangs von Arbeitsteilung in Partnerschaften und sozialer Ungleichheit. Dabei behandeln wir nicht nur die Aufteilung von Haus- und Sorgearbeit in bestehenden Partnerschaften, sondern gehen auch auf die Bedeutung der geschlechtlichen Arbeitsteilung f{\"u}r soziale Ungleichheit nach Trennung und Scheidung ein. Wir diskutieren dar{\"u}ber hinaus die Rolle sozialpolitischer Rahmenbedingungen die Anreize f{\"u}r eine geschlechtsspezifische Arbeitsteilung in Paarhaushalten setzen, und die individuellen Kosten dieser in der Nachtrennungszeit bestimmen.}, language = {de} } @incollection{KreyenfeldKonietzka, author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Konietzka, Dirk}, title = {Sozialstruktur und Familienformen}, series = {Handbuch Familiensoziologie}, booktitle = {Handbuch Familiensoziologie}, editor = {Arr{\´a}nz Becker, Oliver and Hank, Karsten and Steinbach, Anja}, publisher = {Springer VS}, address = {Wiesbaden}, isbn = {978-3-658-35218-9}, doi = {10.1007/978-3-658-35219-6_26}, publisher = {Hertie School}, pages = {657 -- 674}, abstract = {Dieser Beitrag gibt auf Basis der Daten des Mikrozensus einen {\"U}berblick {\"u}ber den Wandel der Familienformen in Deutschland. Es wird untersucht, inwieweit alleinerziehende, nichteheliche und eheliche Familien sozialstrukturell differenziert sind und in welchem Ausmaß sich die {\"o}konomische Lebenslage der verschiedenen Familienformen unterscheidet.}, language = {de} } @article{O’SullivanAlonsoPerezFaerberetal., author = {O'Sullivan, Julie Lorraine and Alonso-Perez, Enrique and F{\"a}rber, Francesca and Fuellen, Georg and Rudolf, Henrik and Heisig, Jan Paul and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Gellert, Paul}, title = {Onset of Type 2 diabetes in adults aged 50 and older in Europe: an intersectional multilevel analysis of individual heterogeneity and discriminatory accuracy}, series = {Diabetology \& Metabolic Syndrome}, volume = {16}, journal = {Diabetology \& Metabolic Syndrome}, publisher = {Springer Science and Business Media LLC}, issn = {1758-5996}, doi = {10.1186/s13098-024-01533-3}, abstract = {Background Disparities in the development of Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) are associated with various social determinants, including sex/gender, migration background, living arrangement, education, and household income. This study applied an intersectional perspective to map social disparities and investigate intersectional effects regarding the onset of T2D among older adults across Europe. Methods We used data from the Survey of Health and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) to conduct an Intersectional Multilevel Analysis of Individual Heterogeneity and Discriminatory Accuracy (I-MAIHDA) of T2D onset. Individuals aged 50 years or older without known T2D at Wave 4 (2011, baseline) were included and followed through Waves 5 (2013), 6 (2015), 7 (2016), and 8 (2019-2020). Intersectional models were used to estimate additive main effects of sex/gender, migration background, living arrangement, education level, and household income and intersectional interactions. Results A total of 39,108 individuals were included (age at baseline M = 65.18 years (SD = 9.62), 57.4\% women). T2D onset was reported for 9.2\% of the sample over the 9-year observation period. In the fully adjusted model, all social determinants showed significant additive associations with T2D onset, while the discriminatory accuracy of the social strata was found to be low (Variance Partition Coefficient = 0.3\%). Conclusions This study provides a comprehensive mapping of intersectional disparities in onset of T2D among older adults in Europe. The results highlight the risk heterogeneity within the population and show social disadvantages faced by certain groups. However, while the T2D risks were higher in some strata than in others, the intersectional effects were small overall and mostly attributable to the additive main effects. The results suggest that public health strategies to prevent T2D should be universal but tailored to meet the specific situation of the different intersectional strata.}, language = {en} } @techreport{BebloBollBergetal., type = {Working Paper}, author = {Beblo, Miriam and Boll, Christina and Berg, Mathias and Geene, Raimund and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Lenze, Anne and Scheiwe, Kirsten and Schober, Pia S. and Stichnoth, Holger}, title = {Zehnter Familienbericht: Unterst{\"u}tzung allein- und getrennterziehender Eltern und ihrer Kinder — Bestandsaufnahme und Handlungsempfehlungen}, edition = {Deutscher Bundestag - 20. Wahlperiode Drucksache 20/14510}, publisher = {Bundesministerium f{\"u}r Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend}, address = {Berlin}, pages = {448}, language = {de} } @techreport{KreyenfeldGellert, type = {Working Paper}, author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Gellert, Paul}, title = {Policy implications of the greying of family diversity}, series = {Academy of Social Sciences: International Advisory Group policy briefings series}, journal = {Academy of Social Sciences: International Advisory Group policy briefings series}, publisher = {Academy of Social Sciences}, address = {London}, language = {en} } @techreport{LambertKreyenfeld, type = {Working Paper}, author = {Lambert, Philippe and Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {Exogenous time-varying covariates in double additive cure survival model with application to fertility}, edition = {LIDAM Discussion Paper IBA 2023/06}, publisher = {ISBA}, address = {Louvain-la-Neuve}, language = {en} } @techreport{FischerFreundGeigeretal., type = {Working Paper}, author = {Fischer, Julia and Freund, Alexandra M. and Geiger, Harmut and Kempermann, Gerd and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Luy, Marc}, title = {Demografischen Wandel und Altern gestalten. Interdisziplin{\"a}re Impulse f{\"u}r einen ressort{\"u}bergreifenden Ansatz}, publisher = {Nationale Akademie der Wissenschaften Leopoldina}, address = {Halle (Saale)}, doi = {10.26164/leopoldina_03_01256}, pages = {38}, abstract = {Der demografische Wandel ist eine der gr{\"o}ßten Herausforderungen, mit denen Deutschland konfrontiert ist. Die anhaltend niedrigen Geburtenraten, verbunden mit einer steigenden Lebenserwartung, f{\"u}hren zu einer starken Alterung der Gesellschaft. Daraus ergibt sich ein sehr großer Anpassungsbedarf in Pflege und Gesundheit, den sozialen Sicherungssystemen und auf dem Arbeitsmarkt. In den letzten Jahren wurde die Demografiepolitik innerhalb der Bundesregierung nur wenig koordiniert und gesteuert. Die Autorinnen und Autoren des Diskussionspapiers empfehlen, die Demografiepolitik als politisches Schwerpunktthema f{\"u}r die kommende Legislaturperiode zu verankern. Das Papier formuliert daf{\"u}r konkrete Handlungsans{\"a}tze.}, language = {de} } @article{Kreyenfeld, author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {Causal Modelling in Fertility Research: A Review of the Literature and an Application to a Parental Leave Policy Reform}, series = {Comparative Population Studies}, volume = {46}, journal = {Comparative Population Studies}, publisher = {German Federal Institute for Population Research}, issn = {1869-8999}, doi = {10.12765/cpos-2021-10}, abstract = {This paper reviews empirical studies that have examined the causal determinants of fertility behaviour. In particular, we compare the approaches adopted in the different disciplines to improve our understanding of how birth dynamics are influenced by changes in female employment and changes in family policies. The wide array of panel data that have become available in recent years provide great potential for advanced causal modelling in this field. Event history modelling has been a dominant approach in sociology and demography. However, researchers are increasingly turning to other methods to unravel causal effects, such as fixed-effects modelling, the regression discontinuity approach, and statistical matching. We summarise selected studies, and discuss the advantages and the shortcomings of the different approaches. In an empirical section, we analyse the impact of the German 2007 policy reform on birth behaviour to illustrate the difficulties involved in isolating policy effects. The final chapter concludes by underscoring that even simple modelling strategies may be beneficial for improving our understanding of how policy effects shape demographic behaviour, and for laying the groundwork for more fine-grained causal investigations. * This article belongs to a special issue on "Identification of causal mechanisms in demographic research: The contribution of panel data".}, language = {en} } @article{KreyenfeldSchmaukMika, author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Schmauk, Sarah and Mika, Tatjana}, title = {The gender pension gap in Germany: Is divorce a gender-equaliser?}, series = {Ageing \& Society}, journal = {Ageing \& Society}, doi = {10.1017/S0144686X21001513}, abstract = {Germany is one of the few countries in Europe that has implemented a system of 'divorce splitting'. Under this system, the pension credits that spouses have accumulated during their marriage are combined and then split equally between them upon divorce. This study examines how divorce affects public pension entitlements in Germany, and how these patterns are influenced by the system of divorce splitting. The data for our analysis comes from SHARE-RV, a direct linkage of the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) with administrative data of the research data centre of the German Pension Insurance Fund (Deutsche Rentenversicherung Bund). The data include information on the beneficiaries' monthly earnings and employment biographies, as well as on their pension entitlements and the credits they received through divorce splitting. The results of the analysis, which was restricted to West German men and women born between 1935 and 1954, reveal that there are large gender gaps in public pension benefit levels. However, the investigation also shows that single and divorced West German women have larger personal pension entitlements than their married or widowed counterparts. Furthermore, the public pension entitlements of divorced men and women in West Germany are very similar. This can be attributed partially to the divorce-splitting system, which tends to increase the pension benefits of divorced women, while reducing the pension benefits of their male counterparts.}, language = {en} } @article{HaanKreyenfeldSchmauketal., author = {Haan, Peter and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Schmauk, Sarah and Mika, Tatjana}, title = {Rentenanspr{\"u}che von Frauen bleiben mit steigender Kinderzahl deutlich hinter denen von M{\"a}nnern zur{\"u}ck}, series = {DIW Wochenbericht}, volume = {92}, journal = {DIW Wochenbericht}, number = {12}, publisher = {DIW Berlin — Deutsches Institut f{\"u}r Wirtschaftsforschung e.V.}, address = {Berlin}, issn = {1860-8787}, doi = {10.18723/diw_wb:2025-12-1}, pages = {183 -- 189}, abstract = {Frauen verdienen auf dem Arbeitsmarkt im Durchschnitt deutlich weniger als M{\"a}nner. Im Jahr 2024 betrug der sogenannte Gender Pay Gap, der den Unterschied der Bruttostundenl{\"o}hne misst, in Deutschland 16 Prozent.info Da die Rentenanspr{\"u}che aus der gesetzlichen Rentenversicherung in Deutschland direkt von den L{\"o}hnen abh{\"a}ngen, {\"u}bertr{\"a}gt sich diese Lohndifferenz auch auf Unterschiede bei den Rentenanspr{\"u}chen. Der Unterschied zwischen M{\"a}nnern und Frauen wird als Gender Pension Gap bezeichnet.info Die unterschiedlichen L{\"o}hne sind aber nur ein Faktor f{\"u}r die Differenz. Weitere Gr{\"u}nde sind h{\"a}ufige Erwerbsunterbrechungen von Frauen, beispielsweise wegen Kinderbetreuung oder der Pflege von Angeh{\"o}rigen, Segregation auf dem Arbeitsmarktinfo oder Unterschieden bei der Teilzeiterwerbst{\"a}tigkeit, die sich auf geschlechtsspezifische soziale Normen und Stereotype zur{\"u}ckf{\"u}hren lassen.info Mit der Einf{\"u}hrung der Kindererziehungszeiten im Jahr 1986, die durch mehrere Reformen ausgeweitet wurden, sollten die individuellen Rentenanspr{\"u}che von M{\"u}ttern erh{\"o}ht werden. Damit sollte langfristig der Gender Pension Gap und auch der Motherhood Pension Gap, also der Unterschied zwischen den Rentenanspr{\"u}chen von Frauen mit und ohne Kinder, reduziert werden.info In diesem Wochenbericht werden auf Basis der Versichertenkontenstichprobe (VSKT) der Deutschen Rentenversicherung die Unterschiede bei den gesetzlichen Rentenanspr{\"u}chen von M{\"a}nnern und Frauen sowie f{\"u}r Frauen nach Anzahl der Kinder untersucht (Kasten 1). Dar{\"u}ber hinaus zeigen die Auswertungen, welche Rolle die Kindererziehungszeiten knapp 40 Jahre nach ihrer Einf{\"u}hrung spielen.}, language = {de} } @article{HaanKreyenfeldSchmauketal., author = {Haan, Peter and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Schmauk, Sarah and Mika, Tatjana}, title = {The Gender Pension Gap Grows the More Children a Woman Has}, series = {DIW Weekly Report}, volume = {15}, journal = {DIW Weekly Report}, number = {12+13}, publisher = {DIW Berlin — Deutsches Institut f{\"u}r Wirtschaftsforschung e.V.}, address = {Berlin}, issn = {2568-7697}, doi = {10.18723/diw_dwr:2025-12-1}, pages = {79 -- 85}, abstract = {The gender pension gap, the difference in pension entitlements between men and women, is 32 percent for 60-yearolds according to data from the German Pension Insurance (Deutsche Rentenversicherung). In addition, there is a considerable motherhood pension gap: Statutory pension entitlements for mothers and childless women differ greatly. Pensionrelated childcare credits, which were introduced in 1986 and have been modified many times since, counteract this gap. Recognition of pension-related childcare credits reduce the difference in pension entitlements between childless women and mothers considerably, albeit only in the immediate years following the birth of a child. For the birth cohorts from 1952 to 1959, the motherhood pension gap for 60-year-olds in western Germany is 26 percent; pension-related childcare credits could not close the gap. Further social and tax policy measures supporting an equal division of care work and paid work are necessary. In addition to expanding public child care, reforms to joint taxation of married couples with full income splitting (Ehegattensplitting) and reducing subsidies for jobs with few working hours (Minijobs) as well as a restructuring of the workplace to be more caretaker-friendly are required.}, language = {en} } @incollection{KreyenfeldSchmauk, author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Schmauk, Sarah}, title = {Widowhood and grey divorce}, series = {Research Handbook on Partnering across the Life Course}, booktitle = {Research Handbook on Partnering across the Life Course}, editor = {Mortelmans, Dimitri and Bernardi, Laura and Perelli-Harris, Brienna}, publisher = {Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd}, isbn = {9781803923383}, doi = {10.4337/9781803923383.00022}, publisher = {Hertie School}, pages = {178 -- 190}, abstract = {The death of a partner and union dissolution both mark the endpoint of a partnership. However, as these events previously primarily occurred at different life course stages, they have generally been investigated in separate strands of literature. With the growing prevalence of divorce at later ages, however, research on widowhood and "grey divorce" has moved closer together. This chapter examines whether and to what extent the findings on the consequences of grey divorce mirror the existing results on the consequences of widowhood. Attention is also given to the different ways in which welfare states buffer the adverse effects of the death of a partner and divorce on individuals' economic wellbeing at advanced ages. While this chapter seeks to summarize achievements regarding grey divorce research, we conclude with a critical discussion, which, among other things, reflects on the use of universal and fixed cut-off ages (such as age 50) to define grey divorce.}, language = {en} } @article{RamosKreyenfeldAlonsoPerezetal., author = {Ramos, Vincent Jerald and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Alonso-Perez, Enrique and Gellert, Paul and Heisig, Jan Paul and O'Sullivan, Julie Lorraine}, title = {Future Caregiving Responsibilities, Employment Uncertainties, and Expected Childbearing Behavior: Survey Experimental Evidence from Germany}, series = {Population Research and Policy Review}, volume = {44}, journal = {Population Research and Policy Review}, publisher = {Springer Science and Business Media LLC}, doi = {10.1007/s11113-025-09969-9}, abstract = {In societies experiencing declining birth rates, understanding factors that influence childbearing decisions is of interest. We used a factorial survey experiment to investigate how scenarios of future caregiving responsibilities toward aging parents and employment uncertainties shape the expected childbearing behavior of a fictitious couple. Respondents from the nationally representative German Socio-Economic Panel Innovation Sample (SOEP-IS) (n = 1,750) were randomly assigned to five vignettes, each describing a hypothetical couple with varying levels of caregiving responsibilities towards an aging parent and employment uncertainties. Respondents subsequently rated their expectations about the hypothetical couple's childbearing behavior within the next three years using an 11-point scale. Results show that high caregiving responsibilities and dual employment uncertainties reduce expected childbearing behavior by 2.8 and 1.9 units respectively, compared to when these are absent. The negative effect of high caregiving responsibilities is more pronounced among women, while respondents' own caregiving and employment experiences do not moderate these effects. These results demonstrate how both future-oriented caregiving responsibilities and employment uncertainties alter expectations about family formation and highlight the scenarios that are regarded as more or less favorable for childbearing.}, language = {en} } @periodical{Kreyenfeld, author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {Special issue: Population inequality matters}, series = {Vienna Yearbook of Population Research}, volume = {2025}, journal = {Vienna Yearbook of Population Research}, number = {1}, editor = {S{\´a}nchez-Romero, Miguel and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Permanyer, I{\~n}aki and Potančokov{\´a}, Michaela and di Lego, Vanessa}, publisher = {Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Verlag}, address = {Vienna}, abstract = {The 2025 volume of the Vienna Yearbook of Population Research focuses on the role of population inequality in demographic research, particularly, on the interplay between population diversity and social inequality. Besides classical markers of heterogeneity in individual behavior, such as gender, age, education, family status, migration background, urban-rural residence and socio-economic status, other sources of inequality are covered in the volume. They include marginalized populations, such as homeless people, generational and spatial factors as well as emerging trends, such as digitalization. Understanding population inequality is key for modeling population developments and projecting them into the future. Equally important is to understand how and why different types of inequality arise and evolve, and what policy challenges they impose for socio-economic development, welfare systems and social cohesion.}, language = {en} } @article{Kreyenfeld, author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {Reflections on CPoS: A Journey Across Five Decades}, series = {Comparative Population Studies}, volume = {50}, journal = {Comparative Population Studies}, publisher = {German Federal Institute for Population Research}, doi = {10.12765/cpos-2025-11}, pages = {xxiii -- xxvi}, abstract = {In this editorial, Michaela Kreyenfeld, former board member, author and reviewer, reflects on her own experiences with and the evolution and significance of Comparative Population Studies (CPoS), formerly Zeitschrift f{\"u}r Bev{\"o}lkerungswissenschaft (ZfB), highlighting its role as a dedicated, rigorous platform for demographic and population research. CPoS embraces core demographic topics as well as interdisciplinary approaches, exemplified for example by seminal works on fertility, demographic transitions, and sociological theory. Valued for fairness, accessibility, and intellectual integrity, CPoS offers a respected venue for both emerging and established scholars. * This article belongs to a series celebrating the journal's 50th anniversary.}, language = {en} } @article{WagnerMolinaAlonsoPerezetal., author = {Wagner, Lena and Molina, Stefania and Alonso-Perez, Enrique and Kreyenfeld, Michaela}, title = {What difference does it make? Parental relationship quality and child wellbeing in step- and nuclear families}, series = {Genus}, volume = {81}, journal = {Genus}, number = {1}, publisher = {Springer Science and Business Media LLC}, doi = {10.1186/s41118-025-00269-w}, abstract = {This study adopts a dyadic perspective to explore how parental partnership quality relates to the wellbeing of children living with both biological parents versus those with a biological parent and a stepparent. We apply multivariable linear regression and a mediation analysis on dyadic data from the German Panel Analysis of Intimate Relationships and Family Dynamics (pairfam) to understand the relationship between family structure, step- and biological parents' partnership quality, and children's self-reported wellbeing, operationalised over the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ-scores). We differentiate two separate dimensions of parental partnership quality, namely the frequency of conflict and esteem between the (step-) parents. The results show that children living with a stepparent exhibit higher total difficulties scores as compared to children living with both their biological parents. However, parental conflict occurs less and esteem more frequently in stepfamilies than in nuclear families. Mediation analysis indicates that frequency of esteem between parents partially mediates the impact of family structure on SDQ-scores. Our analysis suggests that the negative effect of living with stepparents on children's social and behavioural problems is slightly mitigated by increased parental esteem in these unions.}, language = {en} } @article{NisenKluesenerDahlbergetal., author = {Nis{\´e}n, Jessica and Kl{\"u}sener, Sebastian and Dahlberg, Johan and Dommermuth, Lars and Jasilioniene, Aiva and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Lappeg{\aa}rd, Trude and Li, Peng and Martikainen, Pekka and Neels, Karel and Riederer, Bernhard and te Riele, Saskia and Sulak, Harun and Szab{\´o}, Laura and Trimarchi, Alessandra and Viciana, Francisco and Myrskyl{\"a}, Mikko}, title = {Economic Conditions, Education and Parity-Specific Fertility: A Sub-National Regional Study Across 15 Countries in Europe}, series = {Population, Space and Place}, volume = {31}, journal = {Population, Space and Place}, number = {6}, publisher = {Wiley}, doi = {10.1002/psp.70074}, abstract = {There is a longstanding interest in the link between economic conditions and fertility levels. Most research measuring economic development has focused on national-level patterns and period total fertility levels. We aim to extend existing knowledge by carrying out a sub-national regional analysis of the link between economic conditions and parity-specific cohort fertility, while taking into account heterogeneity by educational level. We study three fertility outcomes by women's education: the share of women who remain childless, the mean number of children per mother and the mean number of children per woman. For this analysis, we harmonised register, census and large-scale survey data from 15 European countries, with a focus on women born in the late 1960s. Women's fertility was measured at the end of their reproductive careers and combined with contextual information, including information on the regional GDP (per capita). In our multiple regression models that controlled for country-level factors, we found that GDP was positively associated with childlessness among women with medium and high levels of education. However, GDP was negatively associated with the number of children per mother among women with low levels of education. These findings show that the relationship between economic conditions and fertility varies depending on the level of education of the women, and it differs between childlessness and continued childbearing. High-income contexts may be less supportive of continued childbearing for women with lower levels of education.}, language = {en} } @techreport{BollKreyenfeldMolinaetal., type = {Working Paper}, author = {Boll, Christina and Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Molina, Stefania and Wagner, Lena}, title = {FReDA Module: Causes and Consequences of Economic Abuse in Intimate Partnerships}, publisher = {SocArXiv}, doi = {10.31235/osf.io/uatqp_v1}, pages = {13}, abstract = {This document describes a newly developed module on economic abuse in intimate partnerships that will be integrated into Wave 6 of the FReDA (Family Research and Demographic Analysis) panel study. The module aims to capture key dimensions of economic abuse within intimate relationships and to expand the analytical potential of the FReDA data in this field. It comprises three conceptual batteries: economic control (Wirtschaftliche Kontrolle / Ressourcennutzungsverhinderung), economic sabotage (Wirtschaftliche Sabotage / Ressourcenaneignungsverhinderung), and economic exploitation (Wirtschaftliche Ausbeutung / Ressourcenmissbrauch). Together, these batteries provide a comprehensive and systematic measurement of economic abuse, enabling detailed empirical analyses of its prevalence, forms, and consequences.}, language = {en} } @incollection{KreyenfeldBebloBoll, author = {Kreyenfeld, Michaela and Beblo, Miriam and Boll, Christina}, title = {Was bedeutet die Diversit{\"a}t der Familienformen f{\"u}r den Arbeitsmarkt?}, series = {Was wird aus der Arbeit?}, booktitle = {Was wird aus der Arbeit?}, editor = {Hassel, Anke and Schroeder, Wolfgang}, publisher = {Campus}, address = {Frankfurt}, isbn = {9783593520377}, publisher = {Hertie School}, pages = {107 -- 112}, language = {de} }