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Apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) is the major tree fruit in Germany, but there still exist major uncertainties in commercial apple production. Thinning has been practiced for many years and is an essential part for successful apple production, but is still an unpredictable part with large variations from year to year and even within years. Another uncertainty for apple growers is the need of apple trees for adequate water supply. Due to the advancing climate change apple growers are uncertain whether additional irrigation will be necessary during the establishment phase of young apple trees.
Therefore, to facilitate these decisions in future, the motivation of this study was to acquire a universal apple model to be used in Germany and Central-Europe. The apple carbon-balance model MaluSim which has been developed in the USA was chosen as a basis. At first, the model has been parameterized for German growing conditions and first simulation runs were conducted. In comparison to the original model, the seasonal assimilate production for German standard trees was about half of the one for standard trees in the USA, while standard trees in Germany were only about one third of the size of US ones.
Subsequently, the previously untested fruit growth and abscission submodel has been modified and tested. Simulated final fruit numbers were compared to counted fruit numbers of unthinned trials in Zornheim (GER), Jork (GER), Lindau (CH), Güttingen (CH) and Wädenswil (CH). The modification ‘G4-4’ showed good simulation results with very low deviations to actual fruit numbers. Average deviation to fruit numbers was only 3.7 %. Results indicate that the model is able to very adequately calculate final fruit numbers of natural fruit drop of Central-European apple trees and that it could be a tool used for thinning advices.
Based on published data, a new water submodel has been included into the MaluSim framework to additionally improve the model. Midday stem water potential has been used as an indicator for water status of the tree. A water stress effect on long shoot growth, respiration, and photosynthesis based on midday stem water potential was used in the water submodel. First simulation runs using the new water submodel indicate that general behavior is realistic. Modeling results generally corresponded to findings of published experimental results. The submodel is able to simulate variable intensities of water deficit effects at variable times.
To study the effects of additional irrigation and water deficits on young apple orchards a field experiment was conducted during 2012 and 2013 in Geisenheim, Germany. Trees of the cultivars ‘Fresco’ (‘Wellant®’), ‘Jugala’, and ‘AW 106’ (‘Sapora®’) were planted in autumn 2011 in a randomized plot design. In 2012, three irrigation treatments, CT (control treatment, only rain fed), NT (normal treatment, irrigated with 2 L/tree/day), and ET (evapotranspiration treatment, irrigation based on calculated water balance), were applied and effects on tree growth and physiology were recorded in 2012 and 2013. Besides soil moisture, water status of the trees has been recorded using predawn and midday stem water potential measurements.
In both years, amounts of precipitation were higher than the 30-year average for the site, with 2013 being wetter than 2012. Between treatments, statistically significant differences developed in both seasons, but were less profound in 2013. In 2012, vegetative growth recorded in NT and ET was statistically significantly higher than in CT for all cultivars. In the wetter season 2013, similar tendencies evolved. But only in ‘Jugala’ and ‘Fresco’ long shoot growth and wood surface area was significantly higher, while for ‘AW 106’ differences in long shoot growth were not statistically significant. Similar results were obtained for the first harvest in 2013.
Light interception and calculated leaf area, measured in ‘Fresco’, was significantly lower in CT trees (2012: 17.4 %; 2013: 24.9 %) compared to ET (2012: 26.3 %; 2013: 42.1 %) and NT (2012: 24.2 %; 2013: 38.3 %), in both years. Additionally, differences between CT and the two irrigated treatments were found for leaf gas exchange rates during the seasons. A relationship between midday stem water potential and leaf gas exchange has been confirmed. Grouping of photosynthesis measurements according to midday stem water potentials led to statistically significant differences between groups. Photosynthesis started to decrease between -1 and -1.5 MPa.
In conclusion, the results show that although both years have even been wetter than usual, the additional irrigation was highly beneficial for tree growth and had a positive effect on orchard establishment. This effect is supposed to be considerably higher in drier years.
Vine age and its relation to the quality of the wine are topics of recurring interest, both scientific and economic. Consumers and actors in the wine sector seem to agree on the ability of old vines to produce wines of superior character. Despite ongoing research, the validity of this point of view remains debated and questions about the mechanisms through which old vines would end up with superior quality wines remain numerous. To try to answer them, the impact vine age on physiology, tolerance to water stress, and berry and wine quality were studied in an experimental vineyard planted with Vitis vinifera L. cv. of identical genetic material (Riesling Gm 239 grafted on 5C Teleki) but planted in different years.
In 2014 and 2015, the vines planted in 2012 had not yet reached their full potential and had a significantly lower vegetative productivity and yield than the vines planted in 1995 and 1971. Moreover, the vines planted in 2012 were not subjected to the same grass treatment as older vines during this period to prevent excessive competition during establishment. The lower capacity of these vines and the absence of cover crop led to greater exposure of clusters to light and greater nitrogen accumulation, which resulted in a higher concentration of amino acids, monoterpenes, norisoprenoids, and flavonols in 2014 and 2015. In the following years (2016 and 2017), the yield and pruning weight of these vines, as well as their berry composition, were comparable to those of the older vines. The parameters of technological maturity (° Brix, total acidity and must pH) were not significantly affected by vine age.
Vines planted in 1995 and 1971 showed similar physiological characteristics throughout the study with the exception of a higher incidence of esca syndrome in the older group. This disease was responsible for the decline in the total yield of vines planted in 1971, but individual yield per vine was equivalent for both groups.
Sensory and chemical analyzes were conducted in 2017 on wines from previous vintages. The wines of the youngest vines were associated with aromas of ripe fruit and the kerosene aroma that is typical of Riesling. These wines were also identified by higher concentrations of potential monoterpenes and norisoprenoids and volatile sulfur compounds in 2014 and 2015 only. The sensory and chemical profiles of wines from vineyards planted in 1995 and 1971 were dependent on the vintage but not on the age of the vines. The wine profiles produced in 2016 were overlapping for the three age groups.
The works described in this thesis manuscript are unique, particularly because the vineyard in which they were conducted was designed specifically to study the effect of the age of the vine under comparable environmental conditions. Once the youngest vines reached their fruiting potential and were conducted in the same way as the older vines, their productivity, the composition of their berries and the quality of the wines they produce converged with those of the two other groups. More interestingly, vines aged 19 and 43 years behaved similarly throughout the study and resulted in wines comparable in terms of sensory analysis, which goes against the an idea that the older vines produce wines of a different profile.
Previous studies have shown that the productivity of the vines, whatever their age, could be explained by the wood reserves and the size of the trunk. To have a better idea of differences linked to reserves, the structure-from-motion with multi-view stereo-photogrammetry (SfM-MVS) method was tested to measure trunk thickness and volume. The technique, which allows the creation of scaled, georeferenced 3D models based on photographs, was able to produce accurate models of field-grown grapevine trunks.