@article{KotakKotakBradeetal.2021, author = {Kotak, Bhavya and Kotak, Yash and Brade, Katja and Kubjatko, Tibor and Schweiger, Hans-Georg}, title = {Battery Crush Test Procedures in Standards and Regulation: Need for Augmentation and Harmonisation}, volume = {7}, pages = {63}, journal = {Batteries}, number = {3}, publisher = {MDPI}, address = {Basel}, issn = {2313-0105}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries7030063}, year = {2021}, abstract = {Battery safety is a prominent concern for the deployment of electric vehicles (EVs). The battery powering an EV contains highly energetic active materials and flammable organic electrolytes. Usually, an EV battery catches fire due to its thermal runaway, either immediately at the time of the accident or can take a while to gain enough heat to ignite the battery chemicals. There are numerous battery abuse testing standards and regulations available globally. Therefore, battery manufacturers are always in dilemma to choose the safest one. Henceforth, to find the optimal outcome of these two major issues, six standards (SAE J2464:2009, GB/T 31485-2015:2015, FreedomCAR:2006, ISO 12405-3:2014, IEC 62660-2:2010, and SAND2017-6295:2017) and two regulations (UN/ECE-R100.02:2013 and GTR 20:2018), that are followed by more than fifty countries in the world, are investigated in terms of their abuse battery testing conditions (crush test). This research proves that there is a need for (a) augmenting these standards and regulations as they do not consider real-life vehicle crash scenarios, and (b) one harmonised framework should be developed, which can be adopted worldwide. These outcomes will solve the battery manufacturers dilemma and will also increase the safety of EV consumers.}, language = {en} } @article{AhlbergTidbladEdstroemHernandezetal.2021, author = {Ahlberg Tidblad, Annika and Edstr{\"o}m, Kristina and Hern{\´a}ndez, Guiomar and de Meatza, Iratxe and Landa-Medrano, Imanol and Jacas Biendicho, Jordi and Trilla, Llu{\´i}s and Buysse, Maarten and Ierides, Marcos and Perez Horno, Beatriz and Kotak, Yash and Schweiger, Hans-Georg and Koch, Daniel and Kotak, Bhavya}, title = {Future Material Developments for Electric Vehicle Battery Cells Answering Growing Demands from an End-User Perspective}, volume = {14}, pages = {4223}, journal = {Energies}, number = {14}, publisher = {MDPI}, address = {Basel}, issn = {1996-1073}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.3390/en14144223}, year = {2021}, abstract = {Nowadays, batteries for electric vehicles are expected to have a high energy density, allow fast charging and maintain long cycle life, while providing affordable traction, and complying with stringent safety and environmental standards. Extensive research on novel materials at cell level is hence needed for the continuous improvement of the batteries coupled towards achieving these requirements. This article firstly delves into future developments in electric vehicles from a technology perspective, and the perspective of changing end-user demands. After these end-user needs are defined, their translation into future battery requirements is described. A detailed review of expected material developments follows, to address these dynamic and changing needs. Developments on anodes, cathodes, electrolyte and cell level will be discussed. Finally, a special section will discuss the safety aspects with these increasing end-user demands and how to overcome these issues.}, language = {en} } @article{KotakMarchanteFernandezCanalsCasalsetal.2021, author = {Kotak, Yash and Marchante Fern{\´a}ndez, Carlos and Canals Casals, Lluc and Kotak, Bhavya and Koch, Daniel and Geisbauer, Christian and Trilla, Llu{\´i}s and G{\´o}mez-Nu{\~n}ez, Alberto and Schweiger, Hans-Georg}, title = {End of Electric Vehicle Batteries}, volume = {14}, pages = {2217}, journal = {Energies}, subtitle = {Reuse vs. Recycle}, number = {8}, publisher = {MDPI}, address = {Basel}, issn = {1996-1073}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.3390/en14082217}, year = {2021}, abstract = {It is a fact that electric vehicles (EVs) are beneficial for climate protection. However, the current challenge is to decide on whether to reuse an EV battery or to recycle it after its first use. This paper theoretically investigates these areas i.e., recycle and reuse. It was found that there are several commercially used recycling processes and also some are under research to regain maximum possible materials and quantity. The concept of reusing (second life) of the battery is promising because, at the end of the first life, batteries from EVs can be used in several applications such as storing energy generated from renewable sources to support the government grid. However, the cost and life-cycle analysis (LCA) demonstrated that there are several aspects involved in battery reuse applications. Henceforth, one LCA generalised method cannot provide an optimal approach for all cases. It is important to have a detailed study on each of the battery reusing applications. Until then, it is safe to say that reusing the battery is a good option as it would give some time to recycling companies to develop cost and energy-efficient methods.}, language = {en} } @techreport{BuysseIeridesPerezHornoetal.2021, author = {Buysse, Maarten and Ierides, Marcos and P{\´e}rez Horno, Beatriz and McCready, Amy and Kotak, Yash and Kotak, Bhavya and Schweiger, Hans-Georg}, title = {COBRA Market Intelligence Report - EV Safety and Testing: Feb-Mar-Apr 2021}, url = {https://projectcobra.eu/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/COBRA-MARKET-INTELLIGENCE-February-March-April-2021_789.pdf}, pages = {16}, year = {2021}, language = {de} } @article{WoehrlKotakGeisbaueretal.2023, author = {W{\"o}hrl, Katharina and Kotak, Yash and Geisbauer, Christian and Barra, S{\"o}nke and Wilhelm, Gudrun and Schneider, Gerhard and Schweiger, Hans-Georg}, title = {Analysis of Deactivation of 18,650 Lithium-Ion Cells in CaCl2, Tap Water and Demineralized Water for Different Insertion Times}, volume = {23}, pages = {3901}, journal = {Sensors}, number = {8}, publisher = {MDPI}, address = {Basel}, issn = {1424-8220}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.3390/s23083901}, year = {2023}, abstract = {The deployment of battery-powered electric vehicles in the market has created a naturally increasing need for the safe deactivation and recycling of batteries. Various deactivating methods for lithium-ion cells include electrical discharging or deactivation with liquids. Such methods are also useful for cases where the cell tabs are not accessible. In the literature analyses, different deactivation media are used, but none include the use of calcium chloride (CaCl2) salt. As compared to other media, the major advantage of this salt is that it can capture the highly reactive and hazardous molecules of Hydrofluoric acid. To analyse the actual performance of this salt in terms of practicability and safety, this experimental research aims to compare it against regular Tap Water and Demineralized Water. This will be accomplished by performing nail penetration tests on deactivated cells and comparing their residual energy against each other. Moreover, these three different media and respective cells are analysed after deactivation, i.e., based on conductivity measurements, cell mass, flame photometry, fluoride content, computer tomography and pH value. It was found that the cells deactivated in the CaCl2 solution did not show any signs of Fluoride ions, whereas cells deactivated in TW showed the emergence of Fluoride ions in the 10th week of the insertion. However, with the addition of CaCl2 in TW, the deactivation process > 48 h for TW declines to 0.5-2 h, which could be an optimal solution for real-world situations where deactivating cells at a high pace is essential.}, language = {en} } @article{HassSchieberMeilingeretal.2024, author = {Haß, Jan and Schieber, Christina and Meilinger, Florian and Kotak, Yash and Sevinc, Serkan and Lang, Philipp and Schweiger, Hans-Georg}, title = {Investigation of the Effects Caused by Current Interruption Devices of Lithium Cells at High Overvoltages}, volume = {14}, pages = {8238}, journal = {Applied Sciences}, number = {18}, publisher = {MDPI}, address = {Basel}, issn = {2076-3417}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.3390/app14188238}, year = {2024}, abstract = {A faulty voltage measurement can lead to the overcharging of a Li-Ion cell, resulting in gas formation and heating inside the cell, which can trigger thermal runaway. To mitigate this risk, cylindrical cells are equipped with a Current Interrupt Device (CID), which functions as a pressure relief valve, disconnecting the electrical circuit within the cell when internal pressure rises. However, this disconnection causes the cell to suddenly become highly resistant, posing a significant issue in series-connected cells. In such configurations, a portion or even the entire system voltage may drop across the disconnected cell, substantially increasing the likelihood of an electric arc. This arc could ignite any escaping flammable gases, leading to catastrophic failures. In a series of tests conducted on three different cell chemistries—NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt), NCA (Nickel Cobalt Aluminum), and LFP (Lithium Iron Phosphate)—it was found that the safe operation of the CID cannot be guaranteed for system voltages exceeding 120 V. Although comparative tests at double the nominal cell voltage did not exhibit the same behavior, these findings suggest that current safety standards, which recommend testing at double the nominal voltage, may not adequately address the risks involved. The tests further revealed that series connections of cells with CIDs are inherently dangerous, as, in the worst-case scenario, the entire system voltage can be concentrated across a single cell, leading to potential system failure.}, language = {en} } @article{PeringerKotakSchweiger2024, author = {Peringer, Stefan Michael and Kotak, Yash and Schweiger, Hans-Georg}, title = {Experimental Investigation of Heat Dissipation of Lithium-Ion Cells and Its Correlation with Internal Resistance}, volume = {14}, pages = {7430}, journal = {Applied Sciences}, number = {16}, publisher = {MDPI}, address = {Basel}, issn = {2076-3417}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.3390/app14167430}, year = {2024}, abstract = {Power loss is a limiting factor for batteries and individual cells. The resulting heat generation due to the power loss leads to reduced battery performance and, thus, lower efficiency. These losses are largely due to the internal resistance of the cells. Therefore, it is important to accurately determine the value of the internal resistance of lithium-ion cells. From the literature, it was found that there are three widely used internal resistance-measurement methods (current step method, direct-energy-loss method, and calorimeter measurement), with negligible research on their comparison demonstrating the most efficient method. Henceforth, to find the most optimal method, this research adopts all three methods on a variety of cell chemistries, including Lithium-ion Manganese Oxide (LMO), Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP), Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC), and Lithium Titanium-Oxide (LTO) for different c-rates (1 C, 2 C, and 3 C), with a wide temperature range (from 0 °C to 40 °C).}, language = {en} } @article{RufinoJuniorRivaSanseverinoGalloetal.2024, author = {Rufino J{\´u}nior, Carlos Ant{\^o}nio and Riva Sanseverino, Eleonora and Gallo, Pierluigi and Koch, Daniel and Diel, Sergej and Walter, Gero and Trilla, Llu{\´i}s and Ferreira, Victor Jos{\´e} and Benveniste, Gabriela and Kotak, Yash and Eichman, Joshua and Schweiger, Hans-Georg and Zanin, Hudson}, title = {Towards to Battery Digital Passport: Reviewing Regulations and Standards for Second-Life Batteries}, volume = {10}, pages = {115}, journal = {Batteries}, number = {4}, publisher = {MDPI}, address = {Basel}, issn = {2313-0105}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries10040115}, year = {2024}, abstract = {Greenhouse gas emissions from transportation harm the environment. In response to these environmental concerns, numerous countries encourage the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) as a more environmentally friendly option than traditional gasoline-powered vehicles. Advances in battery technology have made batteries an alternative solution for energy storage in stationary applications and for electric mobility. Reduced lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) production costs due to economies of scale, electrode material and cell design developments, and manufacturing process improvements have driven this success. This trend is expected to increase the number of LIBs on the market that may be discarded in the environment at the end of their useful life if more sustainable alternatives are not technologically mature. This coming environmental concern can be mitigated by collecting wasted EV batteries, reconfiguring them, and reusing them for applications with less stringent weight, performance, and size requirements. This method would extend battery life and reduce environmental effects. The present work investigates the main regulatory structures of the second-life battery industry that require rules, technical standards, and laws. To achieve this objective, a systematic review was carried out following a strict protocol that includes identifying relevant studies, extracting data and information, evaluating, and summarizing information. This paper explains the primary rules and technical standards governing the second-life battery business. The findings highlight the need for universities, research institutions, and government agencies to evaluate the second-life battery industry objectively. This would enable the creation of new technological regulations and laws for this burgeoning industry.}, language = {en} } @unpublished{RufinoJuniorRivaSanseverinoGalloetal.2023, author = {Rufino J{\´u}nior, Carlos Ant{\^o}nio and Riva Sanseverino, Eleonora and Gallo, Pierluigi and Amaral, Murilo Machado and Koch, Daniel and Kotak, Yash and Diel, Sergej and Walter, Gero and Schweiger, Hans-Georg and Zanin, Hudson}, title = {A Comprehensive Review of EV Lithium-Ion Battery Degradation}, publisher = {Preprints}, address = {Basel}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202306.0228.v2}, year = {2023}, abstract = {Lithium-ion batteries with improved energy densities have made understanding the Solid Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) generation mechanisms that cause mechanical, thermal, and chemical failures more complicated. SEI processes reduce battery capacity and power. Thus, a review of this area's understanding is important. It is essential to know how batteries degrade in EVs to estimate battery lifespan as it goes, predict, and minimize losses, and determine the ideal time for a replacement. Lithium-ion batteries used in EVs mainly suffer two types of degradation: calendar degradation and cycling degradation. Despite the existence of several existing works in the literature, several aspects of battery degradation remain unclear or have not been analyzed in detail. This work presents a systematic review of existing works in the literature. The results of the present investigation provide insight into the complex relationships among various factors affecting battery degradation mechanisms. Specifically, this systematic review examined the effects of time, side reactions, temperature fluctuations, high charge/discharge rates, depth of discharge, mechanical stress, thermal stress, and the voltage relationship on battery performance and longevity. The results revealed that these factors interact in complex ways to influence the degradation mechanisms of batteries. For example, high charge currents and deep discharges were found to accelerate degradation, while low temperatures and moderate discharge depths were shown to be beneficial for battery longevity. Additionally, the results showed that the relationship between cell voltage and State-of-Charge (SOC) plays a critical role in determining the rate of degradation. Overall, these findings have important implications for the design and operation of battery systems, as they highlight the need to carefully manage a range of factors to maximize battery performance and longevity. The result is an analysis of the main articles published in this field in recent years. This work aims to present new knowledge about fault detection, diagnosis, and management of lithium-ion batteries based on battery degradation concepts. The new knowledge is presented and discussed in a structured and comprehensive way.}, language = {en} } @article{RufinoJuniorRivaSanseverinoGalloetal.2024, author = {Rufino J{\´u}nior, Carlos Ant{\^o}nio and Riva Sanseverino, Eleonora and Gallo, Pierluigi and Amaral, Murilo Machado and Koch, Daniel and Kotak, Yash and Diel, Sergej and Walter, Gero and Schweiger, Hans-Georg and Zanin, Hudson}, title = {Unraveling the Degradation Mechanisms of Lithium-Ion Batteries}, volume = {17}, pages = {3372}, journal = {Energies}, number = {14}, publisher = {MDPI}, address = {Basel}, issn = {1996-1073}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.3390/en17143372}, year = {2024}, abstract = {Lithium-Ion Batteries (LIBs) usually present several degradation processes, which include their complex Solid-Electrolyte Interphase (SEI) formation process, which can result in mechanical, thermal, and chemical failures. The SEI layer is a protective layer that forms on the anode surface. The SEI layer allows the movement of lithium ions while blocking electrons, which is necessary to prevent short circuits in the battery and ensure safe operation. However, the SEI formation mechanisms reduce battery capacity and power as they consume electrolyte species, resulting in irreversible material loss. Furthermore, it is important to understand the degradation reactions of the LIBs used in Electric Vehicles (EVs), aiming to establish the battery lifespan, predict and minimise material losses, and establish an adequate time for replacement. Moreover, LIBs applied in EVs suffer from two main categories of degradation, which are, specifically, calendar degradation and cycling degradation. There are several studies about battery degradation available in the literature, including different degradation phenomena, but the degradation mechanisms of large-format LIBs have rarely been investigated. Therefore, this review aims to present a systematic review of the existing literature about LIB degradation, providing insight into the complex parameters that affect battery degradation mechanisms. Furthermore, this review has investigated the influence of time, C-rate, depth of discharge, working voltage window, thermal and mechanical stresses, and side reactions in the degradation of LIBs.}, language = {en} } @article{RufinoJuniorRivaSanseverinoGalloetal.2023, author = {Rufino J{\´u}nior, Carlos Ant{\^o}nio and Riva Sanseverino, Eleonora and Gallo, Pierluigi and Koch, Daniel and Kotak, Yash and Schweiger, Hans-Georg and Zanin, Hudson}, title = {Towards a business model for second-life batteries - barriers, opportunities, uncertainties, and technologies}, volume = {2023}, journal = {Journal of Energy Chemistry}, number = {78}, publisher = {Elsevier}, address = {Amsterdam}, issn = {2096-885X}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2022.12.019}, pages = {507 -- 525}, year = {2023}, language = {en} }