@inproceedings{GoldhammerHubertKoehleretal.2014, author = {Goldhammer, Michael and Hubert, Andreas and K{\"o}hler, Sebastian and Zindler, Klaus and Brunsmann, Ulrich and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Analysis on Termination of Pedestrians' Gait at Urban Intersections}, series = {Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), 2014 IEEE 17th International Conference on}, booktitle = {Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), 2014 IEEE 17th International Conference on}, publisher = {IEEE}, address = {Qingdao, China}, doi = {10.1109/ITSC.2014.6957947}, pages = {1758 -- 1763}, year = {2014}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{GoldhammerDollBrunsmannetal.2014, author = {Goldhammer, Michael and Doll, Konrad and Brunsmann, Ulrich and Gensler, Andre and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Pedestrian's Trajectory Forecast in Public Traffic with Artificial Neural Networks}, series = {22nd International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR 2014), Stockholm, Sweden}, booktitle = {22nd International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR 2014), Stockholm, Sweden}, publisher = {IEEE}, isbn = {978-1-4799-5208-3}, issn = {1051-4651}, doi = {10.1109/ICPR.2014.704}, pages = {4110 -- 4115}, year = {2014}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @article{KoehlerGoldhammerBaueretal.2013, author = {K{\"o}hler, Sebastian and Goldhammer, Michael and Bauer, Sebastian and Zecha, Stephan and Doll, Konrad and Brunsmann, Ulrich and Dietmayer, Klaus}, title = {Stationary Detection of the Pedestrian's Intention at Intersections}, series = {IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Magazine}, volume = {2013}, journal = {IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Magazine}, number = {5}, issn = {1939-1390}, pages = {87 -- 99}, year = {2013}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{HahnZindlerDolletal.2015, author = {Hahn, Stefan and Zindler, Klaus and Doll, Konrad and Jumar, Ulrich}, title = {New Control Scheme for a Lane-Keeping Evasive Maneuver Exploiting the Free Space Optimally}, series = {Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Methods and Models in Automation and Robotics,Miedzyzdroje, Poland, 24-27 August, 2015}, booktitle = {Proceedings of the 20th International Conference on Methods and Models in Automation and Robotics,Miedzyzdroje, Poland, 24-27 August, 2015}, pages = {856 -- 861}, year = {2015}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {de} } @misc{BrunsmannDollHellertetal.2010, author = {Brunsmann, Ulrich and Doll, Konrad and Hellert, Christian and Kempf, Johannes and K{\"o}hler, Sebastian and Saxen, Frerk and Weimer, Daniel}, title = {Intelligente Verkehrssicherheits- und Informationssysteme}, series = {Safety Expo, Aschaffenburg}, journal = {Safety Expo, Aschaffenburg}, year = {2010}, abstract = {Poster}, subject = {Verkehrssicherheit}, language = {de} } @misc{BauerBrunsmannDolletal.2009, author = {Bauer, Sebastian and Brunsmann, Ulrich and Doll, Konrad and Duttine, Thomas and Schlotterbeck-Macht, Stefan}, title = {Kompetenz in Kreuzungsassistenz}, series = {Safety Expo, Aschaffenburg}, journal = {Safety Expo, Aschaffenburg}, pages = {Poster und Echtzeitdemonstration}, year = {2009}, abstract = {Poster}, language = {de} } @inproceedings{KoehlerDollKebingeretal.2018, author = {K{\"o}hler, Sebastian and Doll, Konrad and Kebinger, Sophie and Schmitt, Daniel and Kr{\"o}hn, Michael and Fried, Maik and B{\"o}rsig, Rainer}, title = {Prozessinnovation: Hochautomatisiert lernendes Assistenzsystem f{\"u}r die manuelle Montage}, address = {K{\"o}ln}, isbn = {978-3-8007-4522-7}, pages = {153 -- 164}, year = {2018}, abstract = {Trotz hoher Automatisierungsgrade in der produzierenden Industrie, sind manuelle Montageprozesse durch den Menschen, sei es aufgrund der geforderten Flexibilit{\"a}t, insbesondere bei kleinen Losgr{\"o}ßen oder der erforderlichen Pr{\"a}zision, unverzichtbar. Um eine hohe Produktivit{\"a}t und niedrige Ausschussraten zu gew{\"a}hrleisten, ist es sinnvoll, den Menschen in seiner Montaget{\"a}tigkeit zu unterst{\"u}tzen oder zu entlasten. Intelligente Assistenzsysteme k{\"o}nnen den Menschen dahingehend unterst{\"u}tzen, dass sie bspw. schwere T{\"a}tigkeiten kollaborativ {\"u}bernehmen, Prozesse gezielt steuern oder Informationen bei Bedarf kontextsensitiv bereitstellen. In diesem Beitrag wird das Konzept eines intelligent hochautomatisiert lernenden Assistenzsystems vorgestellt, dessen Ziel es ist, anhand von bereits gelernten Abl{\"a}ufen an einem manuellen Montagearbeitsplatz fehlerhafte Abl{\"a}ufe zu erkennen oder neue valide Abl{\"a}ufe hochautomatisiert und un{\"u}berwacht zu lernen. Manuelle Montageprozesse bestehen aus Abfolgen von Handgriffen. Diese Handgriffe werden vom Assistenzsystem als Gesten erkannt und verarbeitet, sodass der Gesamtablauf in Teilschritte zerlegt werden kann. Weiterhin soll dieses Assistenzsystem Informationen zur Behebung des Fehlers direkt am Arbeitsplatz verf{\"u}gbar machen. Das Assistenzsystem, dessen Architektur in Abb. 1 dargestellt ist, besteht aus einem zustandsgesteuerten, lernenden Steuersystem mit einem Microsoft Kinect-v2-Sensor, der den Arbeitsplatz aus der {\"U}berkopfperspektive erfasst und die Montageschritte erkennt. Da das Grundprinzip des Assistenzsystems in der Langzeitbeobachtung und -unterst{\"u}tzung der Montaget{\"a}tigkeit liegt, werden die kontinuierlich aggregierten Daten zur Erweiterung und Verbesserung des Assistenzsystems genutzt. Es lernt somit hochautomatisiert neue oder abgewandelte Montageabl{\"a}ufe. Hieraus ergibt sich eine Herausforderung an die Bewertung der G{\"u}te eines solchen Systems. W{\"a}hrend eine hohe Erkennungsrate der einzelnen Aktivit{\"a}ten innerhalb eines Montageablaufs unabdingbar ist, wird f{\"u}r das vorgeschlagene System dar{\"u}ber hinaus gefordert, dass komplette Abl{\"a}ufe korrekt, d.h. in der richtigen Reihenfolge ohne einzelne Falschklassifikationen, erkannt werden. Nur hierdurch lassen sich real ge{\"a}nderte Abl{\"a}ufe hochautomatisiert und un{\"u}berwacht im Zustandsautomat des Steuersystems online einlernen.}, subject = {Automatisierungstechnik}, language = {de} } @inproceedings{HockHahnleDoll2016, author = {Hock, Sascha and Hahnle, Michael and Doll, Konrad}, title = {Fusion von Fußg{\"a}ngererkennungen auf FPGAs}, series = {55. Workshop der Multiprojekt-Chip-Gruppe Baden-W{\"u}rttemberg}, booktitle = {55. Workshop der Multiprojekt-Chip-Gruppe Baden-W{\"u}rttemberg}, year = {2016}, abstract = {Viele Verfahren zur Erkennung von Objekten, beispielsweise Fußg{\"a}ngern, in Bildern benutzen das Sliding-Window-Prinzip. Dabei wird ein Fenster von links oben nach rechts unten {\"u}ber das Bild verschoben. F{\"u}r jedes dieser Fenster wird gepr{\"u}ft, ob es ein zu erkennendes Objekt beinhaltet. Ein Klassifikator liefert dann h{\"a}ufig positive Ergebnisse f{\"u}r mehrere benachbarte Fenster, die einem einzelnen Objekt zugeordnet werden k{\"o}nnen. Durch den Einsatz von unterschiedlichen Skalenstufen wird dieser Effekt weiter verst{\"a}rkt. Bei der Detektion von Objekten ist daher eine Fusion dieser Mehrfacherkennungen zu einer einzelnen aussagekr{\"a}ftigen Detektion pro Objekt eine entscheidende Komponente. Des Weiteren m{\"u}ssen sporadisch auftauchende Falscherkennungen eliminiert werden. Diese Fusion von Detektionsergebnissen ist in der bildbasierten Objekterkennung ein wichtiger Verarbeitungsschritt und wird h{\"a}ufig auch als Non Maximum Suppression (NMS) bezeichnet. Eine robuste Fusion von Fußg{\"a}ngerdetektionen kann beispielsweise als Grundlage f{\"u}r ein automobiles Fußg{\"a}ngerwarnsystem oder auch f{\"u}r die Absichtserkennung von Personen im Straßenverkehr genutzt werden. Da diese Systeme Echtzeitanforderungen unterliegen, ist hierf{\"u}r eine schnelle Berechnung erforderlich. In dieser Arbeit wird die erste, den Autoren bekannte, rein FPGA basierte Implementierung vorgestellt. Sie ist in der Lage, die Erkennungsergebnisse mehrerer paralleler Skalenstufen in Echtzeit zu fusionieren. Auf einem Kintex-7 FPGA eines Xilinx Zynq SoCs ist damit eine Verarbeitung von mehr als 100 Bildern pro Sekunde mit einer Aufl{\"o}sung von 1280 x 720 Pixel m{\"o}glich. Die Genauigkeit der FPGA-Implementierung ist dabei mit der einer auf OpenCV basierenden Softwareanwendung vergleichbar.}, subject = {Field programmable gate array}, language = {de} } @inproceedings{KoehlerGoldhammerZindleretal.2015, author = {K{\"o}hler, Sebastian and Goldhammer, Michael and Zindler, Klaus and Doll, Konrad and Dietmayer, Klaus}, title = {Stereo-Vision-Based Pedestrian's Intention Detection in a Moving Vehicle}, series = {Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), 2015 IEEE 18th International Conference on}, booktitle = {Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), 2015 IEEE 18th International Conference on}, doi = {10.1109/ITSC.2015.374}, pages = {2317 -- 2322}, year = {2015}, abstract = {We present a method to detect starting, stopping and bending in intentions of pedestrians from a moving vehicle based on stereo-vision. The method focuses on urban scenarios where these pedestrian movements are common and may result in critical situations. Pedestrian intentions are determined by means of an image-based motion contour histogram of oriented gradient descriptor. It is based on silhouettes gathered from stereo data and does not require any compensation of appearance changes resulting from the ego-motion of a vehicle. Nevertheless, it covers small movements indicating a pedestrian's intention. A linear support vector machine with probabilistic estimates is used for classification. We evaluated our method on the publicly available Daimler Pedestrian Path Prediction Benchmark Dataset containing detections of a stateof-the-art pedestrian detector. We detect a pedestrian's stopping intention from 125 ms to 500 ms before standing still within an accuracy range of 80\% to 100\%. Bending in is detected from 320 ms to 570 ms after a first visible lateral body movement in the same accuracy range. The intention to cross the road from standing still (starting) is detected 250 ms after the first visible motion and, therefore, within the first step with an accuracy of 100\%.}, subject = {Bildfolgenanalyse}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{GoldhammerKoehlerDolletal.2015, author = {Goldhammer, Michael and K{\"o}hler, Sebastian and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Camera Based Pedestrian Path Prediction by Means of Polynomial Least-squares Approximation and Multilayer Perceptron Neural Networks}, series = {SAI Intelligent Systems Conference (IntelliSys), 2015}, booktitle = {SAI Intelligent Systems Conference (IntelliSys), 2015}, publisher = {IEEE}, doi = {10.1109/IntelliSys.2015.7361171}, pages = {390 -- 399}, year = {2015}, abstract = {This paper provides a method to forecast pedestrian trajectories by means of polynomial least-squares approximation and multilayer perceptron artificial neural networks for traffic safety applications. The approach uses camera based head tracking as input data to predict a continuous trajectory for a 2.5 s future time horizon. Training and test is performed using 1075 recorded tracks of uninstructed pedestrians in common public traffic situations, including many challenging scenarios like starting, stopping and bending in. The neural network approach has the ability to handle these scenes by learning a single implicit movement model independent of a specific motion type. The polynomial approximation provides an extraction of the principal information of the underlying time series in the form of the polynomial coefficients, high independence of input data, e.g., sample rate, and additional noise resistance. Our test results show 24\% lower prediction errors for starting scenes and 29\% for stopping scenes in comparison to a constant velocity Kalman filter. Approaches using MLP without polynomial input and the usage of Support Vector}, subject = {Neuronales Netz}, language = {en} } @article{KroehnEifertReuteretal.2016, author = {Kr{\"o}hn, Michael and Eifert, Erik and Reuter, Norbert and Hahnle, Michael and Prochus, Tobias and Doll, Konrad}, title = {Gestenbasierte Prozessanalyse}, series = {atp edition}, volume = {2016}, journal = {atp edition}, number = {12}, editor = {Albers, Thomas and Kegel, Gunther and Oprzynski, J{\"o}rn and Otten, Wilhelm and Steckenreiter, Thomas}, pages = {26 -- 33}, year = {2016}, abstract = {Dieser Beitrag beschreibt ein intelligentes Assistenzsystem, das manuelle Montageprozesse beobachten und Auff{\"a}lligkeiten im Ablauf identifizieren kann. Die mit der Montage verbundenen Handgriffe werden als eine Abfolge von Gesten erfasst. Aus den Zeitabst{\"a}nden zwischen den Handgriffen lassen sich statistische Aussagen gewinnen. So kann beispielsweise eine große Streuung auf Qualit{\"a}ts- oder Konzeptprobleme hinweisen. Den Kern des Assistenzsystems bildet die Kinect von Microsoft. Die Autoren stellen das Konzept und erste Ergebnisse des Verfahrens vor.}, language = {de} } @inproceedings{HahnleSaxenDoll2013, author = {Hahnle, Michael and Saxen, Frerk and Doll, Konrad}, title = {Erkennung von Fußg{\"a}ngern in Echtzeit auf FPGAs}, series = {49. MPC-Workshop, Mannheim, Deutschland}, booktitle = {49. MPC-Workshop, Mannheim, Deutschland}, issn = {1868-9221}, pages = {57 -- 65}, year = {2013}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {de} } @misc{DollZindler2016, author = {Doll, Konrad and Zindler, Klaus}, title = {Hochautomatisiertes Fahren: Sensorik, Sensordatenverarbeitung und Fahrzeugf{\"u}hrung}, series = {Technologieforum Innovative Sensorik-Anwendungen im Automotive-Bereich}, volume = {2016}, journal = {Technologieforum Innovative Sensorik-Anwendungen im Automotive-Bereich}, year = {2016}, abstract = {Vortrag}, subject = {Autonomes Fahrzeug}, language = {de} } @inproceedings{ReichertLangRoschetal.2021, author = {Reichert, Hannes and Lang, Lukas and Rosch, Kevin and Bogdoll, Daniel and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard and Rellss, Hans-Christian and Stiller, Christoph and Zollner, J. Marius}, title = {Towards Sensor Data Abstraction of Autonomous Vehicle Perception Systems}, series = {2021 IEEE International Smart Cities Conference (ISC2)}, booktitle = {2021 IEEE International Smart Cities Conference (ISC2)}, publisher = {IEEE}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1109/ISC253183.2021.9562912}, pages = {1 -- 4}, year = {2021}, subject = {Autonomes Fahrzeug}, language = {en} } @incollection{LampertJungHubertetal.2022, author = {Lampert, Pascal and Jung, Janis and Hubert, Andreas and Doll, Konrad}, title = {Looping Through Color Space: A Simple Augmentation Method to Improve Biased Object Detection}, series = {Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems}, booktitle = {Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems}, publisher = {Springer Nature Singapore}, address = {Singapore}, isbn = {9789811916069}, issn = {2367-3370}, doi = {10.1007/978-981-19-1607-6_61}, pages = {687 -- 698}, year = {2022}, subject = {Objekterkennung}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{SchreckReichertHetzeletal.2023, author = {Schreck, Steven and Reichert, Hannes and Hetzel, Manuel and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Height Change Feature Based Free Space Detection}, series = {2023 11th International Conference on Control, Mechatronics and Automation (ICCMA)}, booktitle = {2023 11th International Conference on Control, Mechatronics and Automation (ICCMA)}, publisher = {IEEE}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCMA59762.2023.10374705}, pages = {171 -- 176}, year = {2023}, subject = {Gabelstapler}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{ReichertHetzelHubertetal.2024, author = {Reichert, Hannes and Hetzel, Manuel and Hubert, Andreas and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Sensor Equivariance: A Framework for Semantic Segmentation with Diverse Camera Models}, series = {2024 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (CVPRW)}, booktitle = {2024 IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (CVPRW)}, publisher = {IEEE}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1109/CVPRW63382.2024.00132}, pages = {1254 -- 1261}, year = {2024}, subject = {Bildverarbeitung}, language = {en} } @article{ZindlerDollHuber2017, author = {Zindler, Klaus and Doll, Konrad and Huber, Bertold}, title = {Sicher unterwegs - Fortschritte beim aktiven Fußg{\"a}ngerschutz}, series = {messtec drives Automation}, volume = {25}, journal = {messtec drives Automation}, number = {03}, editor = {WILEY-VCH, Verlag}, pages = {82 -- 82}, year = {2017}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {de} } @inproceedings{KoehlerDollKebingeretal.2018, author = {K{\"o}hler, Sebastian and Doll, Konrad and Kebinger, Sophie and Schmitt, Daniel and Kr{\"o}hn, Michael and Fried, Maik and B{\"o}rsig, Rainer}, title = {Gestenerkennung in einem hochautomatisiert lernenden Assistenzsystem f{\"u}r manuelle Montageprozesse}, series = {AUTOMATION 2018, VDI-Berichte 2330}, booktitle = {AUTOMATION 2018, VDI-Berichte 2330}, address = {Baden-Baden}, isbn = {978-3-18-092330-7}, pages = {145 -- 156}, year = {2018}, subject = {Assistenzsystem}, language = {de} } @inproceedings{BieshaarReitbergerZernetschetal.2017, author = {Bieshaar, Maarten and Reitberger, G{\"u}nther and Zernetsch, Stefan and Sick, Bernhard and Fuchs, Erich and Doll, Konrad}, title = {Detecting intentions of vulnerable road users based on collective intelligence}, series = {AAET - Automatisiertes und vernetztes Fahren}, booktitle = {AAET - Automatisiertes und vernetztes Fahren}, pages = {67 -- 87}, year = {2017}, abstract = {Vulnerable road users (VRUs, i.e. cyclists and pedestrians) will play an important role in future traffic. To avoid accidents and achieve a highly efficient traffic flow, it is important to detect VRUs and to predict their intentions. In this article a holistic approach for detecting intentions of VRUs by cooperative methods is presented. The intention detection consists of basic movement primitive prediction, e.g. standing, moving, turning, and a forecast of the future trajectory. Vehicles equipped with sensors, data processing systems and communication abilities, referred to as intelligent vehicles, acquire and maintain a local model of their surrounding traffic environment, e.g. crossing cyclists. Heterogeneous, open sets of agents (cooperating and interacting vehicles, infrastructure, e.g. cameras and laser scanners, and VRUs equipped with smart devices and body-worn sensors) exchange information forming a multi-modal sensor system with the goal to reliably and robustly detect VRUs and their intentions under consideration of real time requirements and uncertainties. The resulting model allows to extend the perceptual horizon of the individual agent beyond their own sensory capabilities, enabling a longer forecast horizon. Concealments, implausibilities and inconsistencies are resolved by the collective intelligence of cooperating agents. Novel techniques of signal processing and modelling in combination with analytical and learning based approaches of pattern and activity recognition are used for detection, as well as intention prediction of VRUs. Cooperation, by means of probabilistic sensor and knowledge fusion, takes place on the level of perception and intention recognition. Based on the requirements of the cooperative approach for the communication a new strategy for an ad hoc network is proposed. The evaluation is done using real data gathered with a research vehicle, a research intersection with public traffic and mobile devices.}, subject = {Verkehrsverhalten}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{KressJungZernetschetal.2019, author = {Kreß, Viktor and Jung, Janis and Zernetsch, Stefan and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Pose Based Start Intention Detection of Cyclists}, publisher = {IEEE}, address = {Auckland}, doi = {10.1109/ITSC.2019.8917215}, pages = {2381 -- 2386}, year = {2019}, abstract = {In this work, we present a new approach for start intention detection of cyclists based on 3D human pose estimation to increase their safety in road traffic. Start intention detection is realized using sequences of frame-wise estimated 3D poses. The poses were obtained by image sequences recorded by a stereo camera mounted behind the windshield of a moving vehicle. For training and evaluation, a dataset with 206 starting cyclists was created in real traffic. We demonstrate the advantages of this approach by comparing it to an existing, solely head trajectory based method. In particular, we investigate the performance for different observed time horizons ranging from 0.12 s up to 1.0 s as inputs for the two methods. This is of special importance for the protection of cyclists in road traffic, as they often only become visible to approaching vehicles shortly before dangerous situations occur. With an input length of 1.0 s the solely head trajectory based approach detects starting motions on average 0.834 s after the first motion of the bicycle with an F1-score of 97.5 \%. The pose based approach outperforms these results by achieving the same F1-score 0.135 s earlier. The advantages of the pose based method become even more obvious with shorter input lengths. With an input length of 0.12 s, the head based approach achieves an F1-score of 93.5 \% after 2.37 s, while the same score is reached after 0.668 s using poses.}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{KressJungZernetschetal.2019, author = {Kreß, Viktor and Jung, Janis and Zernetsch, Stefan and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Start Intention Detection of Cyclists using an LSTM Network}, series = {INFORMATIK 2019: 50 Jahre Gesellschaft f{\"u}r Informatik - Informatik f{\"u}r Gesellschaft (Workshop-Beitr{\"a}ge)}, booktitle = {INFORMATIK 2019: 50 Jahre Gesellschaft f{\"u}r Informatik - Informatik f{\"u}r Gesellschaft (Workshop-Beitr{\"a}ge)}, editor = {Draude, Claude and Lange, Martin and Sick, Bernhard}, publisher = {Gesellschaft f{\"u}r Informatik e.V.}, address = {Bonn}, isbn = {978-3-88579-689-3}, issn = {1617-5468}, doi = {10.18420/inf2019_ws25}, pages = {219 -- 228}, year = {2019}, abstract = {In this article, we present an approach for start intention detection of cyclists based on their head trajectories. Therefore, we are using a network architecture based on Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) cells, which is able to handle input sequences of different lengths. This is important because, for example, due to occlusions, cyclists often only become visible to approaching vehicles shortly before dangerous situations occur. Hence, the dependency of the results on the input sequence length is investigated. We use a dataset with 206 situations where cyclists were transitioning from waiting to moving that was recorded from a moving vehicle in inner-city traffic.With an input sequence length of 1.0 s we achieve an F1-score of 96.2\% on average 0.680 s after the first movement of the bicycle. We obtain similar results for sequence lengths down to 0.2 s. For shorter sequences, the results regarding the F1-score and the mean detection time deteriorate considerably.}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{ReitbergerBieshaarZernetschetal.2018, author = {Reitberger, G{\"u}nther and Bieshaar, Maarten and Zernetsch, Stefan and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard and Fuchs, Erich}, title = {Cooperative Tracking of Cyclists Based on Smart Devices and Infrastructure}, series = {21st International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC) 2018}, booktitle = {21st International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC) 2018}, publisher = {IEEE}, address = {Maui, HI, USA}, doi = {10.1109/ITSC.2018.8569267}, year = {2018}, abstract = {In future traffic scenarios, vehicles and other traffic participants will be interconnected and equipped with various types of sensors, allowing for cooperation based on data or information exchange. This article presents an approach to cooperative tracking of cyclists using smart devices and infrastructure-based sensors. A smart device is carried by the cyclists and an intersection is equipped with a wide angle stereo camera system. Two tracking models are presented and compared. The first model is based on the stereo camera system detections only, whereas the second model cooperatively combines the camera based detections with velocity and yaw rate data provided by the smart device. Our aim is to overcome limitations of tracking approaches based on single data sources. We show in numerical evaluations on scenes where cyclists are starting or turning right that the cooperation leads to an improvement in both the ability to keep track of a cyclist and the accuracy of the track particularly when it comes to occlusions in the visual system. We, therefore, contribute to the safety of vulnerable road users in future traffic.}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{ZernetschKohnenGoldhammeretal.2016, author = {Zernetsch, Stefan and Kohnen, Sascha and Goldhammer, Michael and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Trajectory prediction of cyclists using a physical model and an artificial neural network}, series = {Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV), 2016}, booktitle = {Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV), 2016}, doi = {10.1109/IVS.2016.7535484}, pages = {833 -- 838}, year = {2016}, abstract = {This article presents two methods for predicting the trajectories of cyclists at an intersection and compares them to a Kalman Filter (KF) approach. The first method uses a physical model of cyclists to predict their future position. The second method is based on a polynomial least-squares approximation in combination with a multilayer perceptron artificial neural network and is able to predict the future position of cyclists independent of their motion type such as "Starting", "Stopping", "Waiting" or "Passing". To evaluate the performance of the methods, 566 tracks (394 for training, 172 for testing) of uninstructed cyclists were recorded at a public intersection using a wide angle stereo camera system and laser scanners. Using the tracks as input data, the future trajectory was predicted for a time horizon of 2.5 s. For starting motions the prediction using the physical model leads to 27\% more accurate positions than the KF approach for a forecast horizon of 2.5 s. The neural network shows a 34\% more accurate result for starting and stopping motions and a similar result for waiting and passing motions.}, subject = {Kalman-Filter}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{GoldhammerGerhardZernetschetal.2013, author = {Goldhammer, Michael and Gerhard, Matthias and Zernetsch, Stefan and Doll, Konrad and Brunsmann, Ulrich}, title = {Early Prediction of a Pedestrian's Trajectory at Intersections}, series = {16th International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems - (ITSC 2013), The Hague, The Netherlands}, booktitle = {16th International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems - (ITSC 2013), The Hague, The Netherlands}, publisher = {IEEE}, isbn = {978-1-4799-2914-6}, doi = {10.1109/ITSC.2013.6728239}, pages = {237 -- 242}, year = {2013}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{KressJungZernetschetal.2018, author = {Kreß, Viktor and Jung, Janis and Zernetsch, Stefan and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Human Pose Estimation in Real Traffic Scenes}, series = {2018 IEEE Symposium Series on Computational Intelligence (SSCI)}, booktitle = {2018 IEEE Symposium Series on Computational Intelligence (SSCI)}, publisher = {IEEE}, address = {Bangalore, India}, doi = {10.1109/SSCI.2018.8628660}, pages = {518 -- 523}, year = {2018}, subject = {Autonomes Fahrzeug}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{ZernetschKressSicketal.2018, author = {Zernetsch, Stefan and Kreß, Viktor and Sick, Bernhard and Doll, Konrad}, title = {Early Start Intention Detection of Cyclists Using Motion History Images and a Deep Residual Network}, series = {2018 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV)}, booktitle = {2018 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV)}, publisher = {IEEE}, address = {Changshu, China}, doi = {10.1109/IVS.2018.8500428}, year = {2018}, abstract = {In this article, we present a novel approach to detect starting motions of cyclists in real world traffic scenarios based on Motion History Images (MHIs). The method uses a deep Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) with a residual network architecture (ResNet), which is commonly used in image classification and detection tasks. By combining MHIs with a ResNet classifier and performing a frame by frame classification of the MHIs, we are able to detect starting motions in image sequences. The detection is performed using a wide angle stereo camera system at an urban intersection. We compare our algorithm to an existing method to detect movement transitions of pedestrians that uses MHIs in combination with a Histograms of Oriented Gradients (HOG) like descriptor and a Support Vector Machine (SVM), which we adapted to cyclists. To train and evaluate the methods a dataset containing MHIs of 394 cyclist starting motions was created. The results show that both methods can be used to detect starting motions of cyclists. Using the SVM approach, we were able to safely detect starting motions 0.506 s on average after the bicycle starts moving with an F 1 -score of 97.7\%. The ResNet approach achieved an F 1- score of 100\% at an average detection time of 0.144 s. The ResNet approach outperformed the SVM approach in both robustness against false positive detections and detection time.}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{ZernetschReichertKressetal.2019, author = {Zernetsch, Stefan and Reichert, Hannes and Kreß, Viktor and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Trajectory Forecasts with Uncertainties of Vulnerable Road Users by Means of Neural Networks}, series = {2019 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV)}, booktitle = {2019 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV)}, publisher = {IEEE}, address = {Paris, France}, doi = {10.1109/IVS.2019.8814258}, year = {2019}, abstract = {In this article, we present an approach to forecast trajectories of vulnerable road users (VRUs) including a numerical quantification of the uncertainty of the forecast. The uncertainty estimates are modeled as normal distributions by means of neural networks. Additionally, we present a method to evaluate the reliability of the forecasted uncertainty estimates, where we utilize quantile-quantile (Q-Q) plots, a graphical method to compare two distributions widely used in statistics. The positional accuracy is evaluated using Euclidean distances, in specific we use the average Euclidean error (AEE) and the average specific AEE (ASAEE). The model is trained and tested using a large dataset of 1311 cyclist trajectories, recorded at an urban intersection in real world traffic. Using this method, we achieve a similar positional accuracy compared to our previous work, where only positions are forecasted. The method is able to produce reliable uncertainty estimates for the motion types start, stop, turn left, and turn rightand produces underconfident uncertainty estimates for the motion types waitand move straight. Since uncertainties are not underestimated, the method can be used as a basis for trajectory planing in automated vehicles.}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @article{BieshaarZernetschHubertetal.2018, author = {Bieshaar, Maarten and Zernetsch, Stefan and Hubert, Andreas and Sick, Bernhard and Doll, Konrad}, title = {Cooperative Starting Movement Detection of Cyclists Using Convolutional Neural Networks and a Boosted Stacking Ensemble}, series = {IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Vehicles}, volume = {3}, journal = {IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Vehicles}, number = {4}, pages = {534 -- 544}, year = {2018}, abstract = {In the future, vehicles and other traffic participants will be interconnected and equipped with various types of sensors, allowing for cooperation on different levels, such as situation prediction or intention detection. In this paper, we present a cooperative approach for starting movement detection of cyclists using a boosted stacking ensemble approach realizing feature- and decision-level cooperation. We introduce a novel method based on a three-dimensional convolutional neural network (CNN) to detect starting motions on image sequences by learning spatio-temporal features. The CNN is complemented by a smart device based starting movement detection originating from smart devices carried by the cyclist. Both model outputs are combined in a stacking ensemble approach using an extreme gradient boosting classifier resulting in a fast and yet robust cooperative starting movement detector. We evaluate our cooperative approach on real-world data originating from experiments with 49 test subjects consisting of 84 starting motions.}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{EilbrechtBieshaarZernetschetal.2017, author = {Eilbrecht, Jan and Bieshaar, Maarten and Zernetsch, Stefan and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard and Stursberg, Olaf}, title = {Model-predictive planning for autonomous vehicles anticipating intentions of vulnerable road users by artificial neural networks}, series = {2017 IEEE Symposium Series on Computational Intelligence (SSCI)}, booktitle = {2017 IEEE Symposium Series on Computational Intelligence (SSCI)}, publisher = {IEEE}, address = {Honolulu, HI, USA}, doi = {10.1109/SSCI.2017.8285249}, pages = {1 -- 8}, year = {2017}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @article{GoldhammerKoehlerZernetschetal.2019, author = {Goldhammer, Michael and K{\"o}hler, Sebastian and Zernetsch, Stefan and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard and Dietmayer, Klaus}, title = {Intentions of Vulnerable Road Users - Detection and Forecasting by Means of Machine Learning}, series = {IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems}, volume = {2020}, journal = {IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems}, number = {21 / 7}, doi = {10.1109/TITS.2019.2923319}, pages = {3035 -- 3045}, year = {2019}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{BieshaarZernetschDeppingetal.2017, author = {Bieshaar, Maarten and Zernetsch, Stefan and Depping, Malte and Sick, Bernhard and Doll, Konrad}, title = {Cooperative Starting Intention Detection of Cyclists based on Smart Devices and Infrastructure}, series = {2017 IEEE 20th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC)}, booktitle = {2017 IEEE 20th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC)}, publisher = {IEEE}, address = {Yokohama, Japan}, doi = {10.1109/ITSC.2017.8317691}, pages = {1 -- 8}, year = {2017}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{BieshaarReitbergerKressetal.2017, author = {Bieshaar, Maarten and Reitberger, G{\"u}nther and Kreß, Viktor and Zernetsch, Stefan and Doll, Konrad and Fuchs, Erich and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Highly Automated Learning for Improved Active Safety of Vulnerable Road Users}, series = {ACM Chapters Computer Science in Cars Symposium (CSCS-17)}, volume = {2017}, booktitle = {ACM Chapters Computer Science in Cars Symposium (CSCS-17)}, address = {M{\"u}nchen}, year = {2017}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{KressSchreckZernetschetal.2020, author = {Kress, Viktor and Schreck, Steven and Zernetsch, Stefan and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Pose Based Action Recognition of Vulnerable Road Users Using Recurrent Neural Networks}, series = {2020 IEEE Symposium Series on Computational Intelligence (SSCI)}, booktitle = {2020 IEEE Symposium Series on Computational Intelligence (SSCI)}, publisher = {IEEE}, address = {Canberra, Australia}, isbn = {978-1-7281-2548-0}, doi = {10.1109/SSCI47803.2020.9308462}, pages = {2723 -- 2730}, year = {2020}, abstract = {This work investigates the use of knowledge about three dimensional (3D) poses and Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) for detection of basic movements, such as wait, start, move, stop, turn left, turn right, and no turn, of pedestrians and cyclists in road traffic. The 3D poses model the posture of individual body parts of these vulnerable road users (VRUs). Fields of application for this technology are, for example, driver assistance systems or autonomous driving functions of vehicles. In road traffic, VRUs are often occluded and only become visible in the immediate vicinity of the vehicle. Hence, our proposed approach is able to classify basic movements after different and especially short observation periods. The classification will then be successively improved in case of a longer observation. This allows countermeasures, such as emergency braking, to be initiated early if necessary. The benefits of using 3D poses are evaluated by a comparison with a method based solely on the head trajectory. We also investigate the effects of different observation periods. Overall, knowledge about 3D poses improves the basic movement detection, in particular for short observation periods. The greatest improvements are achieved for the basic movements start, stop, turn left, and turn right.}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{ZernetschSchreckKressetal.2020, author = {Zernetsch, Stefan and Schreck, Steven and Kress, Viktor and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Image Sequence Based Cyclist Action Recognition Using Multi-Stream 3D Convolution}, series = {2020 25th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR)}, booktitle = {2020 25th International Conference on Pattern Recognition (ICPR)}, year = {2020}, abstract = {In this article, we present an approach to detect basic movements of cyclists in real world traffic situations based on image sequences, optical flow (OF) sequences, and past positions using a multi-stream 3D convolutional neural network (3D-ConvNet) architecture. To resolve occlusions of cyclists by other traffic participants or road structures, we use a wide angle stereo camera system mounted at a heavily frequented public intersection. We created a large dataset consisting of 1,639 video sequences containing cyclists, recorded in real world traffic, resulting in over 1.1 million samples. Through modeling the cyclists' behavior by a state machine of basic cyclist movements, our approach takes every situation into account and is not limited to certain scenarios. We compare our method to an approach solely based on position sequences. Both methods are evaluated taking into account frame wise and scene wise classification results of basic movements, and detection times of basic movement transitions, where our approach outperforms the position based approach by producing more reliable detections with shorter detection times. Our code and parts of our dataset are made publicly available.}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{KressZernetschDolletal.2020, author = {Kreß, Viktor and Zernetsch, Stefan and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Pose Based Trajectory Forecast of Vulnerable Road Users Using Recurrent Neural Networks}, series = {ICPR 2021: Pattern Recognition. ICPR International Workshops and Challenges}, booktitle = {ICPR 2021: Pattern Recognition. ICPR International Workshops and Challenges}, publisher = {Springer International Publishing}, address = {Cham}, isbn = {978-3-030-68763-2}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-68763-2_5}, pages = {57 -- 71}, year = {2020}, abstract = {In this work, we use Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) in form of Gated Recurrent Unit (GRU) networks to forecast trajectories of vulnerable road users (VRUs), such as pedestrians and cyclists, in road traffic utilizing the past trajectory and 3D poses as input. The 3D poses represent the postures and movements of limbs and torso and contain early indicators for the transition between motion types, e.g. wait, start, move, and stop. VRUs often only become visible from the perspective of an approaching vehicle shortly before dangerous situations occur. Therefore, a network architecture is required which is able to forecast trajectories after short time periods and is able to improve the forecasts in case of longer observations. This motivates us to use GRU networks, which are able to use time series of varying duration as inputs, and to investigate the effects of different observation periods on the forecasting results. Our approach is able to make reasonable forecasts even for short observation periods. The use of poses improves the forecasting accuracy, especially for short observation periods compared to a solely head trajectory based approach. Different motion types benefit to different extent from the use of poses and longer observation periods.}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @misc{DollKoehlerGoldhammeretal.2015, author = {Doll, Konrad and K{\"o}hler, Sebastian and Goldhammer, Michael and Brunsmann, Ulrich}, title = {Pedestrian Movement Modelling and Trajectory Prediction at Urban Intersections}, series = {International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC 2015)}, journal = {International IEEE Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC 2015)}, address = {Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain}, year = {2015}, abstract = {Vortrag}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{HubertZernetschDolletal.2017, author = {Hubert, Andreas and Zernetsch, Stefan and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Cyclists starting behavior at intersections}, series = {2017 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV)}, booktitle = {2017 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV)}, publisher = {IEEE}, address = {Los Angeles, CA, USA}, doi = {10.1109/IVS.2017.7995856}, pages = {1071 -- 1077}, year = {2017}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @article{KroehnReuterHahnleetal.2016, author = {Kr{\"o}hn, Michael and Reuter, Norbert and Hahnle, Michael and Prochus, Tobias and Doll, Konrad}, title = {Gestengesteuerte Prozessanalyse}, series = {atp edition - Automatisierungstechnische Praxis}, volume = {58}, journal = {atp edition - Automatisierungstechnische Praxis}, number = {12}, pages = {26 -- 33}, year = {2016}, subject = {Prozessanalyse}, language = {de} } @inproceedings{ZernetschReichertKressetal.2022, author = {Zernetsch, Stefan and Reichert, Hannes and Kress, Viktor and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {A Holistic View on Probabilistic Trajectory Forecasting - Case Study. Cyclist Intention Detection}, series = {2022 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV)}, booktitle = {2022 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium (IV)}, publisher = {IEEE}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1109/IV51971.2022.9827220}, pages = {265 -- 272}, year = {2022}, subject = {Autonomes Fahrzeug}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{BieshaarZernetschRiepeetal.2021, author = {Bieshaar, Maarten and Zernetsch, Stefan and Riepe, Katharina and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Cyclist Motion State Forecasting - Going beyond Detection}, series = {2021 IEEE Symposium Series on Computational Intelligence (SSCI)}, booktitle = {2021 IEEE Symposium Series on Computational Intelligence (SSCI)}, publisher = {IEEE}, doi = {10.1109/SSCI50451.2021.9660151}, pages = {1 -- 8}, year = {2021}, subject = {Autonomes Fahrzeug}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{SchneegansEilbrechtZernetschetal.2021, author = {Schneegans, Jan and Eilbrecht, Jan and Zernetsch, Stefan and Bieshaar, Maarten and Doll, Konrad and Stursberg, Olaf and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Probabilistic VRU Trajectory Forecasting for Model-Predictive Planning A Case Study: Overtaking Cyclists}, series = {2021 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium Workshops (IV Workshops)}, booktitle = {2021 IEEE Intelligent Vehicles Symposium Workshops (IV Workshops)}, publisher = {IEEE}, doi = {10.1109/IVWorkshops54471.2021.9669208}, pages = {272 -- 279}, year = {2021}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @article{KressJeskeZernetschetal.2023, author = {Kress, Viktor and Jeske, Fabian and Zernetsch, Stefan and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Pose and Semantic Map Based Probabilistic Forecast of Vulnerable Road Users' Trajectories}, series = {IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Vehicles}, volume = {8}, journal = {IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Vehicles}, number = {3}, publisher = {Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)}, issn = {2379-8904}, doi = {10.1109/TIV.2022.3149624}, pages = {2592 -- 2603}, year = {2023}, subject = {Fahrerassistenzsystem}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{ZernetschTruppKressetal.2021, author = {Zernetsch, Stefan and Trupp, Oliver and Kress, Viktor and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Cyclist Trajectory Forecasts by Incorporation of Multi-View Video Information}, series = {2021 IEEE International Smart Cities Conference (ISC2)}, booktitle = {2021 IEEE International Smart Cities Conference (ISC2)}, publisher = {IEEE}, doi = {10.1109/ISC253183.2021.9562857}, pages = {1 -- 7}, year = {2021}, subject = {Autonomes Fahrzeug}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{JungHubertDolletal.2022, author = {Jung, Janis and Hubert, Andreas and Doll, Konrad and Kr{\"o}hn, Michael and Stadler, Jochen}, title = {Prozessinnovation}, series = {Wissenstransfer im Spannungsfeld von Autonomisierung und Fachkr{\"a}ftemangel, Tagungsband, 18. AALE-Konferenz, Pforzheim, 09.03.-11.03.2022}, booktitle = {Wissenstransfer im Spannungsfeld von Autonomisierung und Fachkr{\"a}ftemangel, Tagungsband, 18. AALE-Konferenz, Pforzheim, 09.03.-11.03.2022}, publisher = {Hochschule f{\"u}r Technik, Wirtschaft und Kultur Leipzig}, doi = {10.33968/2022.20}, year = {2022}, abstract = {Manuelle Montageprozesse sind nach wie vor unverzichtbar in vielen Bereichen der produzierenden Industrie. Vor allem die Qualit{\"a}tskontrolle, sowie das Einlernen neuer Mitarbeitenden stellen Betriebe durch die voranschreitende Digitalisierung vor neue Herausforderungen. Assistenzsysteme k{\"o}nnen hier helfen, die L{\"u}cke zwischen Anforderungen und Qualifikation zu {\"u}berbr{\"u}cken. Wir stellen einen Ansatz zur intelligenten Assistenz vor, welcher auf einer kamerabasierten Erkennung von Arbeitsabl{\"a}ufen mit Hilfe von Methoden des maschinellen Lernens beruht. Das Assistenzsystem erzeugt automatisiert Hilfsmaterial zur Unterst{\"u}tzung der Werkenden. Zus{\"a}tzlich zur Darstellung der technischen Aspekte, werden psychologische Aspekte, wie Akzeptanz und Motivation untersucht.}, subject = {Assistenzsystem}, language = {de} } @inproceedings{SerflingReichertBayerleinetal.2025, author = {Serfling, Benjamin and Reichert, Hannes and Bayerlein, Lorenzo and Doll, Konrad and Radkhah-Lens, Kati}, title = {LiDAR Based Semantic Perception for Forklifts in Outdoor Environments}, series = {2025 IEEE International Conference on Service Operations and Logistics, and Informatics (SOLI)}, booktitle = {2025 IEEE International Conference on Service Operations and Logistics, and Informatics (SOLI)}, publisher = {IEEE}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1109/SOLI66289.2025.11396313}, pages = {40 -- 45}, year = {2025}, subject = {Gabelstapler}, language = {en} } @inproceedings{HubertGuoDolletal.2025, author = {Hubert, Andreas and Guo, Chenxi and Doll, Konrad and Sick, Bernhard}, title = {Improving Fast 6D Pose Estimation with Adaptive Model Fusion}, series = {2025 5th International Conference on Machine Learning and Intelligent Systems Engineering (MLISE)}, booktitle = {2025 5th International Conference on Machine Learning and Intelligent Systems Engineering (MLISE)}, publisher = {IEEE}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.1109/MLISE66443.2025.11100239}, pages = {58 -- 63}, year = {2025}, subject = {Maschinelles Lernen}, language = {en} } @incollection{HubertGuoDolletal.2025, author = {Hubert, Andreas and Guo, C. and Doll, Konrad and Kuhn, F. and Kr{\"o}hn, M.}, title = {Multimodales hochautomatisiert lernendes Assistenzsystem f{\"u}r manuelle Montageprozesse}, series = {Automation 2025}, booktitle = {Automation 2025}, publisher = {VDI Verlag}, isbn = {9783181024577}, doi = {https://doi.org/10.51202/9783181024577-575}, pages = {575 -- 590}, year = {2025}, subject = {Maschinelles Lernen}, language = {de} }