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By the year 2539 almost 75% of all freshwater mollusc species within Europe will be lost. The transformation of natural ecosystems, the extension of infrastructure, as well as agriculture are the main threats. The Roman snail (Helix pomatia L. 1758) has been part of human culture for centuries and is protected by law as an endangered species in several regions, and at the same time regarded and treated as a pest, making the conservation of this species difficult.
The aim of this thesis was to create a better understanding of H. pomatia and its functional role within the ecosystem. Eight subpopulations were studied regarding its role within the food web, the use of empty shells as a mircohabitat and its influence on vegetation by showing food preferences. The latter, due to the fact, that a strong predation pressure can minimize habitats, which leads to higher pressure on the local vegetation and a limited possibility of shells being used as a microhabitat.
First, the relationships between H. pomatia individuals, subpopulations and their predators were analysed. The total number and percentage of shells that showed external attack marks by predators (32%) and internal utilization marks by Diptera pupae (45%) were analysed and correlated to morphometric traits of shells. Signs of external attack and internal utilization marks were positively correlated (R = 0.79; P = 0.020). External attacks were more regular in larger shells and internal utilization was more frequent in shells with higher body density.
The second chapter focuses on the shells of H. pomatia and their value as microhabitat for shell adopters in different vegetation forms and during two sample periods. Out of 618 collected shells, 91.4 % were inhabited and the average was 1.5 time higher in summer, than in autumn. The number of shell adopters per shell was 1.5 times higher in herbaceous vegetation, than in areas dominated by trees. Shell width (P = 0.008), but not shell height (P = 0.078) had a significant higher influence.
Finally, food preferences of H. pomatia were analysed, showing a pronounced preference for Urtica dioica (35% of all 697 feeding interactions) and plant litter (44%). Only 27 out of 143 available plant species were eaten and a literature review confirmed U. dioica as a food plant for 19 other terrestrial snail species. The width and height of the snail shells were related to the feeding height as smaller, juvenile snails fed higher in vegetation (384mm ± 327mm) compared to adult individuals (68mm ± 194mm) (P<0.001).
These results highlight the importance of H. pomatia in the studied ecosystem. H. pomatia is an important food source for predators and host for parasitoids, the shells offer habitat and refuge for soil organisms and as a relatively specialized herbivore and decomposer H. pomatia contributes to herbivory and nutrient cycling in ecosystems.
Hopefully this study may help to motivate future conservation efforts.
The Iberian Peninsula comprises one of the largest boundaries between Mediterranean and Eurosiberian vegetation, known as sub-Mediterranean zone. This ecotone hosts many unique plant species and communities and constitutes the low-latitude (warm) margin of numerous central European species which co-occur with Mediterranean vegetation. Two of the main species found in this region are the Eurosiberian European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and the Mediterranean Pyrenean oak (Quercus pyrenaica Willd.). It remains unclear how the different physiological and adaptive strategies of these two species reflect their niche partitioning within a sub-Mediterranean community and to what extent phenotypic variation (intraspecific variability) is driving niche partitioning across Eurosiberian and Mediterranean species. We quantified functional niche partitioning, based on the n-dimensional hypervolume to nine traits related to resource acquisition strategies (leaf, stem and root) plus relative growth rate as an additional whole-plant trait, and the environmental niche similarity between Pyrenean oak and European beech. Further, we analyzed the degree of phenotypic variation of both target species and its relationship with relative growth rates (RGR) and environmental conditions. Plant recruitment was measured for both target species as a proxy for the average fitness. Species’ functional space was highly segregated (13.09% overlap), mainly due to differences in niche breadth (59.7%) rather than niche replacement (25.6%), and beech showed higher trait variability, i.e., had larger functional space. However, both species shared the environmental space, i.e., environmental niches were overlapped. Most plant traits were not related to abiotic variables or RGR, neither did RGR to plant traits. Both target species share similar environmental space, however, show notably different functional resource-use strategies, promoting a high complementarity that contributes to maintaining a high functionality in sub-Mediterranean ecosystems. Therefore, we propose that conservation efforts be oriented to preserve both species in these habitats to maximize ecosystem functionality and resilience.
Linking functional composition moments of the sub-mediterranean ecotone with environmental drivers
(2023)
Functional trait-based approaches are extensively applied to the study of mechanisms governing community assembly along environmental gradients. These approaches have been classically based on studying differences in mean values among species, but there is increasing recognition that alternative metrics of trait distributions should be considered to decipher the mechanisms determining community assembly and species coexistence. Under this framework, the main aim of this study is to unravel the effects of environmental conditions as drivers of plant community assembly in sub-Mediterranean ecotones.
We set 60 plots in six plant communities of a sub-Mediterranean forest in Central Spain, and measured key above- and belowground functional traits in 411 individuals belonging to 19 species, along with abiotic variables. We calculated community-weighted mean (CWM), skewness (CWS) and kurtosis (CWK) of three plant dimensions, and used maximum likelihood techniques to analyze how variation in these functional community traits was driven by abiotic factors. Additionally, we estimated the relative contribution of intraspecific trait variability and species turnover to variation in CWM. The first three axes of variation of the principal component analyses were related to three main plant ecological dimensions: Leaf Economics Spectrum, Root Economics Spectrum and plant hydraulic architecture, respectively. Type of community was the most important factor determining differences in the functional structure among communities, as compared to the role of abiotic variables. We found strong differences among communities in their CWMs in line with their biogeographic origin (Eurosiberian vs Mediterranean), while differences in CWS and CWK indicate different trends in the functional structure among communities and the coexistence of different functional strategies, respectively. Moreover, changes in functional composition were primarily due to intraspecific variability. We observed a high number of strategies in the forest with the different communities spreading along the acquisitive-conservative axis of resource-use, partly matching their Eurosiberian-Mediterranean nature, respectively. Intraspecific trait variability, rather than species turnover, stood as the most relevant factor when analyzing functional changes and assembly patterns among communities. Altogether, our data support the notion that ecotones are ecosystems where relatively minor environmental shifts may result in changes in plant and functional composition.
Increased human activity, such as deforestation, is a major driver of biodiversity loss worldwide. In Cameroon, these activities could ultimately threaten the survival of the Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, but knowledge of their abundance and ecology in the Kom - Wum Forest Reserve in Cameroon is still lacking. This research aimed to estimate the population size of this chimpanzee subspecies and assess threats, investigate nesting behaviour, identify suitable habitats, determine feeding habits and document the tools used for food acquisition. Research was conducted using line transects during two seasons: wet (May-September 2018) and dry (November 2019-March 2020). Population size and threats were assessed by georeferencing signs of chimpanzees and human activity along line transects. Nesting behaviour was investigated by recording the characteristics of nesting trees along line transects and mapping their distribution in ArcGIS. Suitable habitat was identified by relating chimpanzee presence signs to local environmental variables related to relief, vegetation and human impact using the Maximum Entropy Species Distribution Model (MaxEnt). Feeding habits were investigated by direct examination of chimpanzee faeces, and tool use was documented by observation and measurement of tools in situ. The reserve is home to up to 83 chimpanzees. Signs of chimpanzee activity were significantly higher in mature forest than in secondary forest, and above 1000 m than below 1000 m. Hunting was the main threat to chimpanzees, and the occurrence of chimpanzee signs decreased significantly with increasing human activity. Chimpanzees preferred tall, mature forest trees at higher elevations with slopes for nesting, and avoided areas near villages and bare land. Only 8% of the study area was suitable chimpanzee habitat. Fruit dominated the chimpanzees' diet, but they also consumed leaves and fruit pith, especially during the dry season. There was also indirect evidence that chimpanzees used tools to consume driver ants (genus Dorylus). Seasonality significantly affected the size of tools used by chimpanzees for driver ant predation. They preferred to use thicker and shorter tools for driver ant predation during the rainy season, whereas longer and thinner tools were used during the dry season. The results of this research highlight the need to reduce poaching and deforestation to protect the remaining chimpanzee population and suitable habitat in the reserve and surrounding unprotected forest. High-elevation and mature forests are critical for chimpanzee conservation and should be a high priority for protection. This research has filled the knowledge gap on what little was known about the abundance and ecology of Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzees.
Approaches to restore post-mining areas should provide sustainable solutions for recovering biodiversity and ecosystem services in regions experiencing massive deforestation. Key components that are impacted by surface mining activities and that restoration intervention should therefore target are biodiversity attributes and ecosystem service provisioning. The consequences of restoration decisions in post-mining areas in the Afrotropical region (here Ghana) remain understudied. To this end, l assessed levels of soil properties, biodiversity and ecosystem service in a post-mining area after two decades of active forest restoration by comparing them to attributes of the surrounding dominant land-use types. l hypothesized that (i) the interventions applied to restore and manage a post-mining area improve ecosystem attributes beyond conditions observed in the alternative dominant land-use types and even reaching levels comparable to reference forest (Chapter III), (ii) soil conditions and the functional structure of tree communities drive ecosystem functions and multifunctionality, with highest multifunctionality levels in the restored and natural forests (Chapter IV), (iii) the structure of tree communities coupled with pronounced climatic seasonality support a higher number of arthropods and arthropod functional groups particularly in the wet season and in structurally heterogeneous land-use types (Chapter V), and (iv) active forest restoration enhances the levels of ecosystem service provision similar to the reference forest with possible trade-offs or synergies among individual ecosystem services across forest types (Chapter VI). Chapter I provides an introduction to deforestation, and further highlights global and national initiatives, including active forest restoration, to reverse or minimize the impacts of tropical deforestation. Chapter II details the methodological approaches applied for sampling. Chapter III focussed on soil properties in addition to below and above-ground biomass of trees. The characteristic soil attributes for the restored forest were not significantly different from those in the reference forest, except for bulk density and base saturation, but differed significantly from attributes in all other land-use types. Chapter IV focussed on how the functional structure of tree communities affects the provision of ecosystem services. For functional composition, both the leaf economic spectrum and the seed mass dimensions separated different land-use types. Chapter V addresses the research question on how post-mining restoration affects arthropod communities. Communities of ground-active arthropods differed significantly between land-use types depending on the season. By quantifying the various ecosystem attributes in the field and transforming them into ecosystem service proxies, l could primarily identify synergies with no apparent trade-off between ecosystem services across the forest land-use types (Chapter VI).
Vergleich zur Umsetzung und Sicherung ausgewählter Natura-2000-Gebiete im deutsch-polnischen Odertal
(2020)
Die FFH-Richtlinie und Vogelschutzrichtlinie wurden als Grundlage zur besseren Erreichung der Ziele und zum Erhalt der Biodiversität erstellt. Die Sicherung der Natura-2000-Gebiete besteht aus der Vorbereitung der Managementpläne und Umsetzung der Maßnahmen, um den Erhaltungszustand der Lebensraumtypen und Arten nicht zu verschlechtern, sowie zur Durchführung der Verträglichkeitsprüfungen und Umsetzung der Kompensationsmaßnahmen.
Im deutsch-polnischen Gebiet sind zahlreiche Natura-2000-Gebiete ausgewiesen, die mit der Entwicklung des Odertals verbunden sind - vor allem Gebiete mit repräsentativen und gut erhaltenden Offenland- und Auen-Biotopen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Darstellung der Umsetzung und Sicherungsmaßnahmen in beiden EU-Ländern, der Vergleich des Zustandes der Gebiete und Offenland-Lebensräume anhand der Daten aus den Standarddatenbögen, der Vergleich der Maßnahmen zur Pflege der Offenland-Biotope sowie die Analyse der Unterschiede und Probleme im deutsch-polnischen Grenzraum in der Umsetzung der Kohärenz des Natura-2000-Netzes.
Es wurden vier Kriterien für die ausgewählten Natura-2000-Gebiete und für die Offenland-Lebensraumtypen bewertet: Repräsentativität, Relative Fläche, Erhaltungsgrad und Gesamtbewertung. Eine hervorragende Gesamtbewertung der Offenland-Lebensraumtypen weisen die deutschen Gebiete Oderberge (97,44 %) und Oderhänge Mallnow (73,33 %) auf. Im polnischen Untersuchungsgebiet wurden die Offenland-Lebensraumtypen im Gebiet Ujście Warty mit der Gesamtbewertung „gut“ zu 95,35 % eingeschätzt. Die Gesamtbeurteilung der natürlichen und naturnahen Grasland-Lebensraumtypen zeigen, dass der Lebensraumtyp Naturnahe Kalk-Trockenrasen im polnischen und im deutschen Untersuchungsgebiet einen hervorragenden bzw. guten Zustand aufweisen.
Die Maßnahmen zum Erhalt der Lebensräumen des natürliches und naturnahes Grasland wurden anhand der Sicherungsinstrumente zugeordnet und bewertet. Durch einen Vergleich der Maßnahmen kann man feststellen, dass sich die Maßnahmen und Best Practices, um den günstigen Erhaltungszustand zu erreichen, beiderseits der Oder nicht gravierend unterscheiden. Für die Pflege dieser Lebensraumtypen wird vor allem Beweidung und Mahd bevorzugt. Die Umsetzung der Maßnahmen hängt vom geomorphologischen Charakter des Gebietes, vom Zustand der Lebensraumtypen sowie von den vorhandenen finanziellen Mitteln ab.
Die Natur kennt keine administrativen Grenzen, deswegen sind für die Erreichung eines guten Erhaltungszustandes der Natura-2000-Lebensräume und Arten die Maßnahmen zur Unterstützung der Kohärenz des Netzes wichtig. Für die bessere Kohärenz des Netzes müssen neue Maßnahmen getroffen werden - von der Harmonisierung der Definitionen und Bewertungen bis zur gemeinsamen, grenzüberschreitenden Abstimmung, zum Monitoring und Austausch zwischen Experten und Behörden. Außerdem ist eine stabile, ausgebaute Politik der Finanzierung der Maßnahmen für Natura-2000-Gebiete nötig, um die Maßnahmen langfristig zu planen.
Participatory management of community-based ecotourism at Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, China
(2019)
Community-based ecotourism (CBET) is promoted in protected areas of developing countries as a strategy for biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation. The success of CBET initiatives relies on effective participatory management programs that can build up collaborative relationships between key stakeholders – protected area administrative staff and local communities – and foster community empowerment. The performance of CBET participatory management programs, relationships between administrative staff and local community, and the level of community empowerment were previously assessed from the perspective of local communities. This study addresses both the perspectives of local community members and administrative staff, through an interview survey in Jiuzhaigou National Nature Reserve, China. This reserve is a key protected area for the conservation of giant panda and other endangered species in China, and is therefore of high priority for the national biodiversity strategy. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches were used to survey 200 local Tibetan villagers and 80 administrative staff members. The results indicate that both staff members and locals support the existing participatory management program - ecotourism development plan (EDP), but locals criticized the sustainable management policy (SMP). Younger, better educated and higher income interviewees were generally most supportive of the EDP and SMP. The relationship between staff members and locals was expressed as problematic with a lack of trust being mentioned as a key issue. The local community is empowered to some extent in economic and environmental dimensions, but not in social, psychological and political dimensions. The CBET generates economic income, but creates problems like inequality of benefit distribution, insufficient social infrastructure, loss of cultural identity, ecological degradation and participation as tokenism. Key factors that hinder the success of CBET from protected area governance and management aspects are a prevalent top-down approach, a mixture of property and operation rights, single sources of funding creating dependencies, a lack of efficient administrative structure and management capacity, and a lack of capacity building programs for the local community. This thesis provides empirical evidence for issues and limitations of policy implications under CBET participatory management programs in a protected area and offers recommendations on how to improve programs in the future.
Large mammals constitute an integral part of biological resources, and hence fundamental elements in many ecosystems. In view of the roles played by habitats and humans in structuring large mammal populations, research was conducted in the Deng Deng National Park, with the aim to identify and characterize the spatial and temporal patterns of habitats, determine the relationship between habitat heterogeneity and mammal abundance and also to investigate the types and extent of human pressure on various large mammal species in the park.
Distance sampling technique and kilometric index analyses approaches were applied to determine species presence, frequency and abundance, with dung, nests, and tracks used as proxy for species presence. Using a spatio-temporal analysis approach in Geographic Information System, species distribution was analyzed. Small and medium sized duikers, red river hog and gorilla were most frequently encountered. Important is the record of elephant for the first time in the park, emphasizing the importance of the park for large mammal conservation.
Diverse land cover types that constitute habitats for flora and fauna were distinguished and characterized as dense forest, mature secondary forest, young secondary forest, tree and grassland savanna, settlement and degraded areas, and water bodies. Area, mean patch size, shape, density and richness metrics of these land cover types varied, emphasizing the heterogeneity of the park landscape. No significant differences (0.2 ≤ p ≥ 0.8) were observed in species abundance due to diverse habitat characteristics in the park. Species exhibited generalist habits with preference mostly for the dense and mature secondary forest habitat types. Temporal pattern over a 23 years’ time lag projected a 6.19 % increase in dense forest cover, suggesting future shelter opportunities for large mammals in the park.
The park is experiencing threats that are changing the physical environment in simple and reversible manner but also threats that have changed the parks environment in permanent ways; all from impacts of adjacent human settlements and development activities. Generally, species abundance was significantly high (p = 0.03) in habitats where threats encounter rates were low, and low in habitats affected by high human activity; a clear indication that these activities have eventually created depressing effects on the habitats of large mammal species in the park.
Actions aimed to limit human activities around the park, and aiming to sustain the large mammals and their habitats, especially within the hotspots identified in this study, are therefore proposed to ensure a more sustainable future for large mammals in the Deng Deng National Park.
Auf globaler Ebene sind die biogeochemischen Kreisläufe von Silicium und Kohlenstoff hauptsächlich durch Verwitterungsprozesse und Stoffflüsse gelösten Siliciums aus terrestrischen in aquatische Ökosysteme miteinander verbunden. Diverse Organismen sind in der Lage, amorphe siliciumhaltige Strukturen zu synthetisieren (Biosilifikation), die in Böden unterschiedliche biogene Silicium-Pools repräsentieren und diese Siliciumflüsse als Bestandteile des sogenannten biogenen Silicium-Filters beeinflussen. Während sich die Forschung bislang primär auf die Rolle phytogener Silicium-Pools konzentriert hat, ist über weitere biogene Silicium-Pools in Böden wenig bekannt. Dies gilt insbesondere für protozoische Silicium-Pools, die durch Thekamöben repräsentiert werden.
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die Böden von fünf Flächen unterschiedlich alter Initialstadien (drei, fünf und zehn Jahre alt) und zehn Waldstandorten der gemäßigten Zone analysiert, um protozoische Silicium-Pools, korrespondierende Biosilifikationsraten, sowie abiotische (z.B. Boden-pH) und biotische (Biomassen anezischer, endo- und epigäischer Regenwürmer) Einflüsse zu ermitteln. Die Beprobung der initialen, zehnjährigen Chronosequenz erlaubte die Fokussierung der Untersuchung auf die temporale Dynamik protozoischer Silicium-Pools in Abhängigkeit von der Vegetation. Hierbei wurde an den drei und fünf Jahre alten Initialflächen zwischen von Vegetation bewachsenen und unbewachsenen Beprobungspunkten unterschieden. Bezüglich der Waldflächen erfolgte die Standortauswahl entlang starker Gradienten innerhalb bodenbildender Faktoren und ausgesuchter Bodeneigenschaften, wobei die Standorte verschiedene Humusformen (Mull vs. Nicht-Mull) repräsentieren. An allen Standorten wurden die oberen 5 cm Boden beprobt, wobei jeweils zwischen oberen (bis etwa 2,5 cm Tiefe) und unteren (bis 5 cm Tiefe) Bodenkompartimenten unterschieden wurde.
Die Größe der protozoischen Silicium-Pools der Initialflächen bewegte sich zwischen 3 g (dreijährige Fläche, unbewachsen) und 680 g (zehnjährige Fläche) Silicium pro Hektar, wobei die Pools an den bewachsenen Beprobungspunkten etwa drei- bis viermal größer waren, als an den unbewachsenen. Auch die jährlichen minimalen (23 g bis 2.300 g Silicium ha-1) und maximalen (160 g bis 16.000 g Silicium ha-1) Biosilifikationsraten waren jeweils an den bewachsenen Beprobungspunkten höher, als an den unbewachsenen. Die protozoischen Silicium-Pools in den Böden der Waldstandorte erreichten Größen von 200 g bis 900 g Silicium ha-1 (Mull-Standorte) bzw. 1.400 g bis 4.700 g Silicium ha-1 (Nicht-Mull-Standorte), wobei die korrespondierenden Biosilifikationsraten Maxima von 17 kg (Mull-Standorte) bzw. 80 kg (Nicht-Mull-Standorte) Silicium ha-1 aufwiesen. Die Initialflächen zeigten beim Größenvergleich der protozoischen Silicium-Pools in den jeweils übereinanderliegenden Bodenkompartimenten keine signifikanten Unterschiede. Bei den Waldstandorten dagegen ließen sich bei einem von sechs Mull-Standorten, sowie bei drei von vier Nicht-Mull-Standorten statistisch signifikante Unterschiede in der Pool-Größe in den jeweils übereinanderliegenden Kompartimenten finden. Basierend auf der Größenordnung der Silicium-Pools und der Biosilifikationsleistung wurde gefolgert, dass es sich bei den protozoischen Pools um äußerst reaktive biogene Silicum-Pools handelt, die – im Vergleich zu den phytogenen Pools – nach ihrer Synthese lediglich für einen relativ kurzen Zeitraum als Bestandteil des biogenen Silicium-Filters auf den Silicium-Kreislauf einwirken. Auch wenn die Anteile der protozoischen Silicium-Pools am gesamten biogenen Silicium-Pool mit Werten zwischen 0,04 ‰ und 6 ‰ (Initialflächen), 0,5 ‰ und 3,4 ‰ (Mull-Standorte) bzw. 2,1 ‰ und 36 ‰ (Nicht-Mull-Standorte) relativ gering ausfielen, so sind die jährlichen Biosilifikationsraten lebender Thekamöben mit der jährlichen Silicium-Aufnahme durch Bäume dennoch vergleichbar (älteste Initialfläche, Mull-Standorte) oder können diese sogar übertreffen (Nicht-Mull-Standorte).
Die protozoischen Silicium-Pools der Initialflächen standen im Zusammenhang mit temporalen Änderungen untersuchter physikalisch-chemischer Bodeneigenschaften durch Verwitterungsprozesse und das Vorhandensein von Vegetation. Auch wenn der relative Anteil biogenen Siliciums an der amorphen (Tiron-extrahierbaren) Silicium-Fraktion generell mit dem Flächenalter zunahm und zwischen 11 % (jüngste Fläche) und 22 % (älteste Fläche) schwankte, ist davon auszugehen, dass die Verwitterungs- und Auflösungsraten der amorphen Silicium-Fraktion den Eintrag rezenten Siliciums überstiegen (erkennbar an der Verminderung der amorphen Silicium-Fraktion mit zunehmendem Flächenalter), so dass hier (noch) keine signifikante Akkumulation biogenen Siliciums feststellbar war.
An den Waldstandorten korrelierten die protozoischen Silicium-Pools mit der leicht verfügbaren (Calciumchlorid-extrahierbaren) Silicium-Fraktion (rs = -0,782), dem Boden-pH (rs = -0,879) und der Biomasse endogäischer Regenwürmer (rs = -0,925). In Waldböden mit hohen Gehalten leicht verfügbaren Siliciums wurden kleinere protozoische Silicium-Pools vorgefunden, als in Böden mit niedrigeren Gehalten und umgekehrt, weshalb eine Limitierung protozoischer Pools durch das Vorhandensein dieser Silicium-Fraktion an den untersuchten Standorten ausgeschlossen wurde. Dagegen scheint der Boden-pH die Größe der protozoischen Silicium-Pools indirekt über die Steuerung des Vorkommens von Regenwürmern (unter einem pH-Schwellwert von 3,8 sind keine endogäischen oder anezischen Regenwürmer aufgefunden worden) zu beeinflussen. In diesem Zusammenhang wurden direkte (Regenwürmer als Fressfeinde und Konkurrenten) und indirekte (z.B. Veränderungen der Habitat-Strukturen durch Regenwurmaktivitäten) Mechanismen der Einflussnahme durch Regenwürmer diskutiert. Der Einfluss der Regenwurmaktivitäten spiegelte sich auch im Anteil biogenen Siliciums an der amorphen Silicium-Fraktion wider, wobei dieser bis zu 50 % (Mull-Standorte) bzw. 100 % (Nicht-Mull-Standorte) in den oberen 5 cm des Bodens betrug. Während es an den Nicht-Mull-Standorten zu einer Akkumulation biogenen Siliciums in den oberen Bodenschichten kam, wurde diese an den Mull-Standorten durch das Vermischen der Bodenschichten durch Regenwürmer abgeschwächt. Da der Boden-pH ein Resultat von Verwitterungsprozessen und der Bodenversauerung während der Pedogenese darstellt, werden die protozoischen Silicium-Pools letztlich indirekt durch bodenbildende Faktoren (Klima, Flora und Fauna, Relief, Ausgangsgestein und Zeit) beeinflusst.
Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit verdeutlichen, dass die protozoischen Silicium-Pools der Initialflächen innerhalb von lediglich zehn Jahren eine Größe erreichen konnten, die mit derjenigen der bewaldeten Standorte vergleichbar ist. Weiter ließ sich festhalten, dass insbesondere biotische Wechselwirkungen für die Akkumulation biogenen Siliciums in Böden eine wichtige Rolle spielen. Zukünftige Untersuchungen sollten die Erkenntnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit aufgreifen, um die Bedeutung dieser Wechselwirkungen für die biogenen Silicium-Pools in Böden und damit den (globalen) Silicium-Kreislauf zu beleuchten.
Forest resources provide a means of livelihoods in rural communities in most developing countries. Growing threats of disappearance of these resources as a result of human and natural activities led Cameroon in 1994 to institute new forest policy reforms which amongst others aimed to formalize and strengthen the involvement of local communities in forest management. Although much has been written on the importance and methods of participation of the local people in sustainable forest management, little has been done to assess the involvement of especially women in forest management activities. This study aims to contribute to an understanding of the roles of indigenous men and women in forest management activities, how they are shaped by management regimes and the influence on their livelihoods.
Results are based on empirical findings from two case studies-the Korup National Park Area (KNPA) and Bechati Forest Area (BFA). The analysis focuses on the different roles of men and women in forest activities, exploring how policies have influenced their participation. It further uses the concepts provided by gender analysis and SLF to check the potentials for improved participation of men and women in forest management and sustainable rural livelihoods.
Results show that men and women in the research communities are solely dependent on forest resources for their livelihoods. They perform different roles with different interests and needs regarding the forest and its resources. Men and women have different responsibilities in protecting and maintaining homestead, common and forest lands. The results show that men are interested in cash crop production and usually own large plots and a greater proportion of women are involved in food crop production mostly for subsistence.
The analysis of the management practices in both research areas show that formal and traditional ways of managing the forest are practiced. The traditional method is supplementary to the formal as the inability of traditional council to solve some forest problems are forwarded to the court of law where sanctions are taken. Considering that they are few guards to patrol the forest or visit the communities regularly would mean increase illegal activities in the forest. With some recognition, cooperation and mutual understanding between the local people, government and conservation staff, the management of the forest would be improved. The analysis further reveals clashing traditional, governmental and participatory management strategies leading to tensions, conflicts and lack of trust among actors.
Results on gender analysis in research communities portray power relations in forest issues. Rights and access to natural resources like land, trees and animals is gendered. Land tenure rights BFA are hereditary and entitled to the male successor of the family. In KNPA, it is based on demarcation and occupation. However, though land acquisition is open to both men and women in the KNPA, women were found to acquire less land due to numerous responsibilities and lack of strength. The amount of land acquired determines the degree of authority a family or an individual possesses. The analysis also shows that there is some form of change in gender roles although women are not highly represented and even fewer women take part in decision-making processes.
Gender issues are integrated in most policy commitments in Cameroon but if steps are not taken to translate them into practice, the increase participation of women in forest management will remain limited. True change can be achieved if decision-makers ensure an inclusive implementation of gender issues at all levels of project planning. A change in traditional attitudes on the roles of men and women should be adopted and a rethinking on policies (e.g. land tenure and property rights) is necessary to pave the way for greater female participation.