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Thermal recycling of plastic waste using pyrolysis-gasification process for energy production
(2012)
The disposal of mixed waste in landfills, dump sites and open burning without material and energy recovery leads to resource loss, causes health problems, pollution and littering. Increasing energy demand for industrial and domestic application with rising costs due to scarcity motivates a constant search for alternative clean energy sources. Recovering energy from waste presents various incentives e.g. creating jobs, alleviating poverty, combating and mitigating climate change, protecting the environment and reducing dependence on traditional fuels sources. Hence, plastics end up in landfills, surface waters and ocean bed with serious negative impact on terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity. Plastic waste with high calorific value (36-46MJ/kg) occupies the greatest portion of landfill space. Hence, using an appropriate technology to transform waste plastic to a hot gaseous mixture which is burned in-situ produces enormous amount of energy without pollution. Based on this hypothesis, the study objectives accomplished were to: 1.Characterise, quantify and classify waste fractions and plastic components common in MSW by manual sorting 2.Evaluate options for sustainable plastic waste management especially for developing countries 3.Design, construct, test and optimize an appropriate technology that applies pyrolysis and gasification processes to convert non-PVC plastic waste to energy 4.Assess the efficiency of the technology based on the functioning, the engineering, mass and energy analysis including socioeconomic and environmental impacts An integrated methodology involving review of current literature, field and laboratory experiments on mixed waste and plastic waste analysis was used. In addition, the pyrolysis-gasification technology (PGT) was conceptualised, designed, constructed, tested and optimised at BTU Cottbus, Germany; Lagos, Nigeria and Dschang, Cameroon. Field studies involving natural observation, interviews, personal discussions and visits to waste management organisations and disposal sites were conducted in various cities in the three case study countries. A resource-oriented manual sorting using the resource-recovery scavenging approach (RESA) simulating integration of scavenger’s activities in waste sorting was conducted at BTU and Lagos. Major results obtained include: •Characterization, quantification and classification of a dry sample of commingled MSW at Cottbus gave major waste fractions in order of decreasing abundance as 23.15% of residue waste, 19.75% of paper and cardboards, 17.80% of plastics, 14.63% of textiles and diapers, 10.06% of food waste and 9.55% of glass. An overall 33.21% of waste sample is compostable for manure, 52.2% usable as feedstock in the PG technology and 99.81% of total sample having a material or energy recovery potential. In Lagos, Nigeria main fractions were 29% of plastics, 36% of residue waste, 17% of soil/sand, 7% of paper with overall 41% usable as feedstock in PG technology, 39% compostable, 3% of recyclable (metal and glass). Sand can be recovered from the soil/sand fraction for construction. Excluding the sand/soil mixture, 83% of the total waste sample has potential for material and energy value. •An appropriate technology that applies principles of pyrolysis and gasification to convert non-PVC plastic waste to energy was designed, constructed, tested and optimized with respect to: (i) Successful functioning with conversion of averagely 98.51% of input constituting of 82.78-98.21% of charcoal and 96.72-99.27% of plastic to heat energy (ii) Evaluation of socioeconomic and environmental impacts based on pyrolysis and exhaust gas and ash residue analysis showed absence of VOCs, heavy metals and pollutant organic and inorganic compounds; (iii) Safety and risk assessment to indoor pollution is very low; (iv) Assessment of the WTA and WTP indicated that 94% of respondents in Lagos, Nigeria and Porto Novo, Benin were willing to accept and pay for this technology. Using the PG technology improves local communities’ ability to achieve clean, efficient and safe cooking and heating energy with potential for combine heat power generation.
Increased human activity, such as deforestation, is a major driver of biodiversity loss worldwide. In Cameroon, these activities could ultimately threaten the survival of the Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee, but knowledge of their abundance and ecology in the Kom - Wum Forest Reserve in Cameroon is still lacking. This research aimed to estimate the population size of this chimpanzee subspecies and assess threats, investigate nesting behaviour, identify suitable habitats, determine feeding habits and document the tools used for food acquisition. Research was conducted using line transects during two seasons: wet (May-September 2018) and dry (November 2019-March 2020). Population size and threats were assessed by georeferencing signs of chimpanzees and human activity along line transects. Nesting behaviour was investigated by recording the characteristics of nesting trees along line transects and mapping their distribution in ArcGIS. Suitable habitat was identified by relating chimpanzee presence signs to local environmental variables related to relief, vegetation and human impact using the Maximum Entropy Species Distribution Model (MaxEnt). Feeding habits were investigated by direct examination of chimpanzee faeces, and tool use was documented by observation and measurement of tools in situ. The reserve is home to up to 83 chimpanzees. Signs of chimpanzee activity were significantly higher in mature forest than in secondary forest, and above 1000 m than below 1000 m. Hunting was the main threat to chimpanzees, and the occurrence of chimpanzee signs decreased significantly with increasing human activity. Chimpanzees preferred tall, mature forest trees at higher elevations with slopes for nesting, and avoided areas near villages and bare land. Only 8% of the study area was suitable chimpanzee habitat. Fruit dominated the chimpanzees' diet, but they also consumed leaves and fruit pith, especially during the dry season. There was also indirect evidence that chimpanzees used tools to consume driver ants (genus Dorylus). Seasonality significantly affected the size of tools used by chimpanzees for driver ant predation. They preferred to use thicker and shorter tools for driver ant predation during the rainy season, whereas longer and thinner tools were used during the dry season. The results of this research highlight the need to reduce poaching and deforestation to protect the remaining chimpanzee population and suitable habitat in the reserve and surrounding unprotected forest. High-elevation and mature forests are critical for chimpanzee conservation and should be a high priority for protection. This research has filled the knowledge gap on what little was known about the abundance and ecology of Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzees.
This thesis summarizes the author’s developments of combustion models and multi-objective optimization methods for gasoline and diesel engines. The combustion models belong to the family of zero-dimensional stochastic reactor models introduced in the 1990s to improve the prediction of emissions with detailed chemistry in partially stirred reactors.
The first part introduces the fundamentals of the physical and chemical models describing the combustion process. As a novelty, k−ε turbulence models were implemented in the stochastic reactor model to predict the turbulent time and length scales in gasoline and diesel engines. This development allowed an improvement of the models for convective heat transfer, fuel evaporation, gas exchange across the valves, turbulent flame propagation and crevice flow, which depend on the turbulent time and length scales.
In the second part, the multi-objective optimization platform for automatic training of the stochastic reactor model is presented. The optimization method considers multiple operating points to find a set of model parameters that predict performance and emissions over the entire engine map. The Non-domination Sorting Genetic Algorithm II is combined with the stochastic reactor model and response surface models to find the best Pareto front. Multi-criteria decision making is used to select the best designs from the Pareto front.
Finally, the third part of this thesis deals with the validation of the stochastic reactor model and the multi-objective optimization platform. For this purpose, experiments of two single-cylinder research engines with spark ignition, one passenger car engine with compression ignition and one heavy duty engine with compression ignition are used. For the spark ignition engines, a set of model parameters was found that predicts well the power and emissions over the whole engine map. The calculated turbulent kinetic energy, dissipation, and angular momentum follow the trends of the three-dimensional computational fluid dynamic simulations to a good approximation for various operating points. For the two compression ignition engines, the prediction of combustion progress and nitrogen oxide emissions are in good agreement with the experiments. Larger discrepancies were found for the prediction of carbon monoxide and unburned hydrocarbon. Optimization of the soot model parameters improves the prediction of soot mass for operating points throughout the engine map.
Water injection is investigated for turbocharged spark-ignition engines to reduce knock probability and enable higher engine efficiency. The novel approach of this work is the development of a simulation-based optimization process combining the advantages of detailed chemistry, the stochastic reactor model and genetic optimization to assess water injection. The fast running quasi-dimensional stochastic reactor model with tabulated chemistry accounts for water effects on laminar flame speed and combustion chemistry. The stochastic reactor model is coupled with the Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm to find an optimum set of operating conditions for high engine efficiency. Subsequently, the feasibility of the simulation-based optimization process is tested for a three-dimensional computational fluid dynamic numerical test case. The newly proposed optimization method predicts a trade-off between fuel efficiency and low knock probability, which highlights the present target conflict for spark-ignition engine development. Overall, the optimization shows that water injection is beneficial to decrease fuel consumption and knock probability at the same time. The application of the fast running quasi-dimensional stochastic reactor model allows to run large optimization problems with low computational costs. The incorporation with the Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm shows a well-performing multi-objective optimization and an optimized set of engine operating parameters with water injection and high compression ratio is found.
Accra and Kumasi are the two major cities in Ghana. Spatial urban expansion has been experienced in transforming different non-urban Land Use Land Cover (LULC) types into urban/built-up areas with a potential direct relationship to temperature rise in the cities. Thus, this dissertation aims to establish the relationship between urban spatial expansion and temperature in Accra and Kumasi metropolis. Multi-source datasets such as remote sensing images, different GIS vector layers, reference maps and historical temperature datasets were used for this retrospective study. This research was grouped under three components: environmental science, environmental technology, as well as environmental management and planning. From the environmental science component, LULC maps were produced for different years to assess the trend of temporal change in the various LULC classes in the two metropolises. Remote sensing indices and land surface temperature were retrieved from the remote sensing images to determine their correlations. Temperature time series was analysed by calculating temperature indices and determining temporal trends to reveal changes in air temperature to detect urban warming and its impacts. From the environmental technology, the novel random forest algorithm was utilised to classify the satellite images of both cities since previous works have utilised other traditional classifiers. The satellite imageries were used for point-based estimation of temperature to determine Urban Heat Islands (UHIs) hotspots. For environmental management and planning, spatial urban expansion techniques were utilised to ascertain trends in urban/built-up areas, especially in both cities' sub-metropolitan zones. For prescient purposes, future LULC modelling was implemented to provide insights into the proportions of the various LULC changes in 2025. The analysis identified two salient findings: increased urban/built-up areas at the expense of agricultural and forestlands throughout the study period and the positive correlation between spatial urban expansion and temperature. This indicated warming up of urban temperature in both cities. The major findings in this dissertation provided evidence of how integrated datasets and research techniques can be utilised for LULC changes to determine the relationship between spatial urban expansion and temperature at local scales. Institutions such as metropolitan assemblies and policymakers may adopt the concepts demonstrated in this work to rapidly assess urban environments and investigate the relationship between spatial urban expansion and temperature.
The Accra Metropolis of Ghana has experienced rapid urban expansion over the past decades. Agricultural and forest-lands have been transformed into urban/built-up areas. This study analysed urban expansion and its relationship with the temperature of Accra from 1986 to 2022. Multi-source datasets such as remote sensing (RS) and other ancillary data were utilised. Land use land cover (LULC) maps were produced employing the random forests classifier. Land surface temperature (LST) and selected d(RS) Indices were extracted. Regression techniques assessed the interplay between LST and remote sensing indices. The LULC maps revealed increasing trends in the urban/built-up areas at the expense of the other LULC types. The analysis from the LST and the RS indices revealed a direct relationship between temperature and urban/built-up areas and an inverse relationship between temperature and vegetation. Thus, spatial urban expansion has modified the urban temperature of Accra. The integrated utilisation of RS and GIS demonstrated to be an efficient approach for analysing and monitoring urban expansion and its relationship with temperature.
Temperature variability may have direct and indirect impacts on the environments of the Accra and Kumasi Metropolises in Ghana. This study analysed temperature and trends in temperature in both cities using in-situ measurements from one meteorological station in both cities from 1986 to 2015. The temperature indices were computed using the RClimdex package from the Expert Team on Climate Change Detection Monitoring Indices (ETCCDMI). The temperature time series was pre-whitened before the Mann–Kendall trend and Sen’s slope estimator analysis were applied. Initial analysis revealed minimal variation in temperature in both cities. The results from the analysed temperature indices revealed an increase in warm days and a general rise in the minimum temperature compared to maximum temperatures. Mann Kendall and Sen’s slope revealed significant trends in the annual and seasonal (dry and wet seasons) in minimum temperature in both cities. These might lead to an increased rate of heat-stressed diseases and an overall rise in urban warming in both cities. The analysis of temperature, indices and trends provided comprehensive insights into the temperature of Accra and Kumasi. The results highlight the essence of evaluating temperature indices and trends in light of Climate Change concerns. It is recommended that urban green and blue spaces should be incorporated into land use plans as these policy directions can aid regulate the temperature in both cities.
Mit hoher Geschwindigkeit wechselnde qualitative und quantitative Marktanforderungen erfordern von Unternehmen geeignete Reaktionen. Die Umweltdynamik findet einerseits Eingang in die strategische Planung und führt andererseits im Ausführungssystem zu ungeplanter Turbulenz. Die taktische Ebene steht vor der Aufgabe, interne und externe Flexibilitätsanforderungen und die Flexibilitätspotentiale des Produktionsbereiches aufeinander abzustimmen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird ein in sich geschlossener Flexibilitätsmanagementzyklus entwickelt. Durch die Erstellung hybrider Simulationsmodelle wird es möglich, das Ausführungssystem mit diskreten Systembestandteilen detailliert abzubilden ohne auf die Beschreibung selbständigen Anpassungsverhaltens der Akteure durch Ausnutzung gegebener Handlungsspielräume in kontinuierlichen Modellbestandteilen verzichten zu müssen. Das Flexibilitätspotential des Produktionssystems wird auf diese Weise sichtbar und kann analysiert werden.
Alkoxilierungsreaktionen enthalten u.a. aufgrund der hohen Reaktionsenthalpie und der Stoffeigenschaften ein hohes Gefährdungspotential. Die Absicherung der Reaktoren hinsichtlich durchgehender Reaktionen kann durch konstruktive Maßnahmen sowie prozesstechnische Vorkehrungen erfolgen. Die Begrenzung der Konzentration des Epoxids als alternatives Schutzkonzept gewinnt zunehmend an Bedeutung, wobei selbst ein spontanes Durchgehen der Reaktion nicht zu einer Gefährdung führt. Diese Arbeit ist primär auf die Anwendung der zuletzt angeführten Methode ausgerichtet. Ein experimenteller Ansatzes findet seine Grenzen in der Vielzahl der zu untersuchenden Stoffsystemkombinationen. Der in dieser Arbeit zugrunde gelegte theoretische Ansatz zielt demgegenüber auf eine durchgängige und allgemeingültige Vorausberechnung der sicherheitstechnischen Betriebsgrenzen von Alkoxilierungsreaktoren unter Berücksichtigung der Design- und Betriebsparameter.
We formulate the mission planning problem for a meet of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) as a mixed-integer nonlinear programming problem (MINLP). The problem asks for a selection of targets from a list to the UAVs, and trajectories that visit the chosen targets. To be feasible, a trajectory must pass each target at a desired maximal distance and within a certain time window, obstacles or regions of high risk must be avoided, and the fuel limitations must be obeyed. An optimal trajectory maximizes the sum of values of all targets that can be visited, and as a secondary goal, conducts the mission in the shortest possible time. In order to obtain numerical solutions to this model, we approximate the MINLP by a mixed-integer linear program (MILP), and apply a state-of-the-art solver (GUROBI) to the latter on a set of test instances.
This thesis proposes a design of experiment for testing and evaluation of the equipment and the methods used in manual mine clearance. The thesis is based on several metal detector trials and a trial of manual demining methods. The core of this dissertation comprises four metal detector trials performed in Germany and Croatia in 2003 and 2005. The purpose of these trials was to investigate the feasibility of the tests described in the CWA (Comit´e Europ´een de Normalisation /CEN/ Workshop Agreement) 14747:-2003, the standard for testing metal detectors for humanitarian demining. The goals of the trials were: to find an appropriate design of experiment for testing metal detectors; to establish the use of ROC diagrams (Receiver Operating Characteristics) and POD curves (Probability of Detection) in the analysis of the experimental results; and to gain practical experience in organising and conducting metal detector trials. A part of this thesis is devoted to a trial of manual demining methods performed in Mozambique in 2004. The main goal of that trial was to compare the speed of various manual demining methods, including the most common excavation methods. The outcome of this work are the proposals and recommendations for an update of the standard for testing metal detectors CWA 14747:2003. Maximum detection height measurements were performed as a part of the metal detector trial carried out in Croatia in 2005. The results reveal a high variability of the maximum detection height. This high variability needs to be taken into account in all experiments. A part of the variability is caused by the differences between the operators and by the setup of the metal detector. It is therefore recommended that two kinds of experiments with the maximum detection height as a response variable are defined in the next update of CWA 14747:2003. The first kind should include the setup, the soil and the operator as factors in the design of experiment. The in-soil measurements with the same detector should be performed with repeated setups and with several operators. The second kind of experiments should be experiments evaluating the influence of other predictor variables. In those experiments, it is recommended to perform one-factor or multiple-factor in-air measurements with the operators and the setup as a block. The main part of the metal detector trials described in this thesis were the detection reliability tests. Detection reliability tests as described in CWA 14747:2003 come closest to representing the real field conditions in demining. They include many environmental influences and, most importantly, many of the human factor influences. However, each test design is a compromise between fully representative conditions and cost effectiveness. In this thesis, a fractional factorial design based on the Graeco-Latin square is proposed as a solution to the experimental problem. The results are reported in the form of ROC diagrams and POD curves. The crossover design enables each operator to work with fewer detector models within a certain time. The variations of the design enabled an unbiased comparison of detectors in each soil and with each target model separately. It is recommended that the solutions proposed in this thesis be incorporated in the standard CWA 14747:2003. It has been shown that maximum detection height measurements provide the information about the best possible performance of a metal detector in a reliability test.
This research comprises an analysis concerning the conflict between the State Party Germany to the World Heritage Convention and UNESCO in the case of the Dresden Elbe Valley. Through a historical and legal analysis, this research aims to ascertain the reasons for this conflict, as well as the impossibility of finding a compromise. First, the conflict in the core of the Dresden Elbe Valley World Heritage Site caused by the construction of the Waldschlößchenbrücke, which is the object of study in this research, is anchored in its context of the City of Dresden. Thus, the object of the conflict, the Waldschlößchenbrücke, is presented in its historical and geo-spatial context in order to shed light on the elements that triggered the conflict. Secondly, the conflict is anchored within the German legal context through the analysis of the legal procedures concerning the binding effects of the World Heritage Convention for the Federal Republic of Germany and the environmental concerns rendered by the construction of the Waldschlößchenbrücke. Based on legal commentaries of the courts’ decisions, a discussion on the non-transposition of the World Heritage concepts in the Federal Republic of Germany is implemented. Thirdly, the State Party Germany to the World Heritage Convention and UNESCO are confronted. A review of the concept of cultural landscape in the context of the World Heritage Convention, adapted to the case of the Dresden Elbe Valley, is first implemented. Subsequently, a commentary on the legally binding effects for the States Parties to the World Heritage Convention is elaborated upon, as well as a deconstruction of the step-by-step decisions from the inscription to the delisting of the Dresden Elbe Valley from the World Heritage List. Fourthly, an evaluation is developed concerning the concept of Historic Urban Landscape as an action plan capable of solving the conflict between urban development and heritage protection, and adapted to the German context. Finally, as a conclusion to this research, recommendations are drawn based on the conflict opposing UNESCO and the State Party Germany to the World Heritage Convention towards the Dresden Elbe Valley. These recommendations are addressed to the City of Dresden, the Free State of Saxony, the Federal Republic of Germany and UNESCO.
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) is now a significant piece of the international climate agreement. This present dissertation aims to investigate the overall framework of REDD+ development as a national strategy in Brazil. Moreover, it focuses on identifying the major challenges and policy constraints of this development design process. A further aim is at the end of the research to proffer pathways for improvement of domestic forest governance in Brazil. Using the sustainable forest landscape governance approach as the overarching conceptual for an effective REDD+ implementation within the Brazilian context and, building on this analysis, the conclusions advance some considerations on what features should be prioritized in the development and establishment of the Brazilian REDD+ national strategy. This dissertation is a grounded theoretical analysis and is centered on the conception that although REDD+ is strongly treated by the Federal Government as an expansion of it’s actions with regard to sustainable development, by turning forests into an economic asset and strengthening institutions and laws, it is much more likely that Brazil can deal with the environmental challenges it has been facing.
Slicermesser sind kreisförmige Scheibenmesser zum Schneiden von Lebensmittelprodukten, insbesondere Wurst, Fleisch, Käse und dergleichen. Sie werden in Hochleistungsschneidemaschinen so genannten Slicern eingesetzt und mit hoher Drehzahl von 3450 bis 5600 min-1 angetrieben. Die hohen Drehzahlen und die auftretenden Schnittkräfte erfordern eine sehr stabile Ausführung des Slicermessers. Ausgehend davon, die Messer in aufwändigen spanenden Herstellungsverfahren gefertigt werden müssen und ein relativ hohes Gewicht von 5250 g aufweisen. Der Schlüssel zur Lösung dieser Herausforderungen hinsichtlich Stabilität, Steifigkeit, Gewichtseinsparung, Werkstoffeinsatz und Fertigungsaufwand könnte in der endkonturnahen Fertigung durch Blechumformung liegen. In dieser Arbeit wurde ein werkstoffeffizientes, aus Stahlblech herstellbares Slicermesser entwickelt. Die Umformtechnologie zur Herstellung des Slicermessers wurde realisiert. Die Funktionsfähigkeit und die technische Zuverlässigkeit der hergestellten Slicermesser wurden experimentell überprüft und mit dem herkömmlichen Slicermesser verglichen.
This thesis presents the results of the research based on the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), with respect to the application of the Energy-using Products (EuP) Directive and the Environmental Management System (EMS). In part A, an introduction and hypotheses of the research are given. In general it will be investigated, whether the environmental techniques such as Environmental Management System and Life Cycle Assessment may be used by the company in Poland as a tool for increasing the competitiveness and creation of the green company’s image. Furthermore, the applicability of these techniques and tools in the framework of the European directive on the Energy-using Products will be shown. In order to understand the requirements of the voluntary environmental tools and binding legal framework, a general description of the Environmental Management Systems (based on the ISO 14001 standards), Life Cycle Assessment (described by the ISO standards of 14040 family) as well as the Energy-using Products directive will be given in Part A. Part B will deal with the results of the LCA based on a case study of a gas-electro cooker produced by FagorMastercook S.A. The LCA evaluation was performed with the help of the SimaPro modelling program. The modelling was divided into two steps. In the first step, only the cooker’s influence on the environment was considered, including the production processes. In the second stage, the use phase processes were added, as well as End-of-Life scenarios specific for the Polish market and situation were applied. The evaluation was based on different Life Cycle Impact Assessment methods. As the result, one could observe, that main impact on the environment was caused by the subassemblies and materials with the highest weight. Furthermore, the use of the metals (ferro and non-ferro) was responsible for the majority of the environmental damage. This damage occurred mainly in the categories relating to the natural resource consumption. As for the second modelling stage, cooking and baking processes were pointed out as the main cause of the environmental damage from the life cycle perspective. The cooker itself had a relatively small importance and contribution to the overall impact. These LCA results were be used as a part of the comprehensive assessment of the environmental performance of the entire company system with the help of Sensitivity Model Prof. Vester (SMPV) software in Part C. The sensitivity analysis was performed in two steps. In the first step, all variables that could influence the functioning of the company (such as financial results, authorities, customers, environment, inhabitants of the city) were taken into consideration. In the second modelling step, only the variables with the most visible influence on the system were taken into consideration (i.e. price, owner, quality, etc.). For both modelling steps, several policy scenarios were developed, taking into consideration various types of interactions between variables and time spans of 15 and 30 years. As the result one could see, that the implementation of the LCA and EMS in the company may help to achieve the strategic goals, such as improvement of the products’ quality, creating the green image of the company, minimising costs and negative influence of the company on the environment. On the other hand, decision makers in the company should be aware of the implementation costs, which may cause the increase of the products’ price and the decrease of the competitiveness on the internal (Polish) and external (European) market. Subsequently, summary and conclusions of the results are presented in Part D. Parts A to D are described in the Volume 1 of the thesis. Appendices are presented in the Volume 2.
The work is dedicated to the aspects of characterization of surface charge phenomena in two colloidal systems: synthetic mixtures of textile dyes and aqueous suspension of ceramic powders. An implication to the areas of physicochemical colour removal from textile effluents and gel-casting of ceramics is made. A model for dye-coagulant interaction has been developed based on surface charge density and floc size investigations. Various dispersant optimization techniques have been compared in stabilizing aqueous slurries of ultra-fine alumina particles, the zeta potential derived from CVI measurements being viewed as a most reliable one. The chemical environment of the ceramic slurry together with maintaining an optimal process conditions in gel-casting plays an equally important role in providing a desired properties of complex shaped ceramic bodies.
Sandwichstrukturen, bestehend aus zwei Decklagen und einem dazwischen liegenden Kernmaterial, stellen den Stand der Technik zur Herstellung von Bauteilen mit niedrigem Gewicht und hoher mechanischer Stabilität dar. Dabei werden im Luftfahrtbereich hauptsächlich Honeycombs aus Nomex®-Papier zur Herstellung von Sandwichbauteilen mit guten FST-Eigenschaften (Fire Smoke Toxicity) verwendet. Für Anwendungen bei denen die mechanischen Eigenschaften des Kernmaterials nicht im Vordergrund stehen, wie z.B. bei nichttragenden Verkleidungselementen, bieten textile Noppenwaben aufgrund niedriger Herstellungskosten und der Möglichkeit zur Integration verschiedener Funktionalitäten eine interessante Alternative zu Honeycombs.
Textile Noppenwaben bestehen aus einer flächigen, mit Harz imprägnierten Maschenware, welche in einem ersten Schritt zu einer dreidimensionalen Noppenstruktur geformt und anschließend durch Härtung des Harzes stabilisiert wird. Aufgrund zahlreicher Freiheitsgrade, die sich aus der Wahl des Garn- und Matrixmaterials, der Maschenbindung, sowie der Noppengeometrie ergeben, können die Eigenschaften dieses Kernmaterials in einem weiten Bereich variiert und das Kernmaterial für vielfältige Anwendungen gezielt angepasst werden.
Eine wesentliche Hürde für den Einsatz von Noppenwaben besteht bislang in der aufwändigen diskontinuierlichen Herstellung mittels Plattenwerkzeugen in einer beheizbaren Presse. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit liegt der Fokus auf der Entwicklung eines Verfahrens zur kontinuierlichen Herstellung von Noppenwaben. Bei diesem Verfahren wird das harzimprägnierte Textil zwischen zwei beheizten Werkzeugbändern in Form gebracht und anschließend ausgehärtet. Während das diskontinuierliche Verfahren nur die zeitaufwändige Fertigung vergleichsweise kleiner Noppenwabenplatten zulässt, bietet das kontinuierliche Fertigungsverfahren die Möglichkeit, Noppenwaben mit deutlich geringerem Zeitaufwand als Endlosmaterial herzustellen.
Weiterhin wird im Rahmen der Arbeit aus der Analyse der bisher hergestellten einseitigen Noppenwabe eine neue symmetrische Geometrie abgeleitet. Unter anderem werden dazu die Formänderungen der Maschenware bei der Formgebung zur Noppenwabe untersucht und unterschiedliche Geometrien miteinander verglichen.
Symmetrische Noppenwaben werden mit einseitigen Noppenwaben und etablierten luftfahrtzugelassenen Kernmaterialien, wie ausgewählten Schäumen und Honeycombs hinsichtlich ihrer mechanischen Eigenschaften verglichen, um deren Potential für den Einsatz als leichtes und brandfestes Kernmaterial zu beurteilen. Dafür werden kontinuierlich hergestellte Noppenwaben hinsichtlich Druckfestigkeit, Schubfestigkeit, Biegefestigkeit und Impact-Verhalten ebenso getestet wie die Anbindung an die Decklagen im Trommelschälversuch.
Neben den genannten Untersuchungen, werden weitere, nicht-mechanische Charakteristika wie FST-Verhalten, Drapierbarkeit und die Möglichkeit, zusätzliche Funktionen zu integrieren, betrachtet.
Die Städte Reichenbach im Vogtland, Mylau und Netzschkau bilden einen Wirtschaftsbezirk, dessen Industrialisierungsprozess in der ersten Dekade des 19. Jhs. einsetzte. Reichenbach, die größte der drei Städte, konnte sich bereits 1847 zu den wichtigsten Fabrikorten in Sachsen zählen. Das Ziel der Forschungsarbeit war es die Ursachen für die frühe Industrialisierung zu analysieren, sowie die Auswirkungen der frühen Industrialisierung auf die Entstehung des Fabrikantentums, die Bautätigkeit der Fabrikanten und daraus resultierend, den Einfluss der Fabrikanten auf die städtebauliche Entwicklung der Region zu erforschen und gegenseitige Abhängigkeiten und Bedingtheiten darzustellen. Aus den analysierten wirtschaftlichen und sozialgeschichtlichen sowie städtebaulichen und architektonischen Entwicklungslinien wurden folgende Abhängigkeiten deutlich: Die frühe Industrialisierung der Reichenbacher Wirtschaftsregion basierte auf dem traditionellen Textilgewerbe, das sich aufgrund gegebener geografischer Bedingtheiten im Mittelalter herausbildete. Ab 1808 bzw. 1811 begann zunächst im Baumwolle verarbeitenden Gewerbe der Übergang von der Heimarbeit zur industriellen Massenproduktion durch die Einführung von mechanischen Spinnmaschinen und deren konzentrierte Aufstellung in einer Fabrik. Als Folge dieses Prozesses entstand das Fabrikantentum. Viele Fabrikanten spezialisierten sich in der zweiten Dekade des 19. Jhs. auf die krisenunabhängigere Herstellung von Kamm- und Streichgarnprodukten, wodurch sich die Reichenbacher Wirtschaftsregion zum Zentrum dieser Branchen innerhalb Sachsens entwickelte. Dieser wirtschaftliche Erfolg spiegelte sich auch in der umfangreichen Bautätigkeit des Fabrikantentums wider, das stetig in neue Fabrikbauten oder den Ausbau bereits bestehender investierte. Gleichermaßen war die Steigerung der Produktion mit einem zusätzlichen Arbeitskräftebedarf verbunden, wodurch die Einwohnerzahlen innerhalb der drei Städte stark anstiegen und großflächige Stadterweiterungen zur Folge hatten. Der Anschluss Reichenbachs an das Schienennetz 1846 und Netzschkaus 1851 sowie der Ausbau der städtischen Infrastruktur beschleunigten die urbanen Entwicklungsprozesse. Für die frühe Industrialisierung der Städte Reichenbach, Mylau und Netzschkau, der Entstehung des Fabrikantentums und deren Bautätigkeit war demzufolge kein Einzelereignis oder eine Einzelperson ausschlaggebend, sondern das Zusammenwirken von überregionalen und regionalen ökonomischen und gesellschaftlichen Prozessen.
The properties of Si thin films for solar cells, the interaction with different substrates and the influence of dopants are examined with synchrotron based x-ray spectroscopy – primarily x-ray emission spectroscopy (XES) and hard x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (HAXPES). The films are studied as-deposited (i.e., amorphous, a-Si) and after conversion into polycrystalline (poly-Si) employing solid phase crystallization (SPC). Si L2,3 XES spectra of thin-film Si samples can be described by a superposition of a-Si and monocrystalline Si-wafer (c-Si) reference spectra. According to a quantification based on that superposition principle, none of the investigated samples are completely crystallized – a measurable a-Si component always remains (5-20 %) regardless of deposition and treatment conditions. Based on additional results from electron back scattering diffraction different models are developed which may explain this finding. According to these models, the remnant a-Si component can be attributed to amorphous/disordered material at the grain boundaries. Using one of these models, the thickness of this grain-surrounding material s could be approximated to be (1.5 ± 0.5) nm. Further investigations of the SPC process reveal a faster crystallization for boron-doped samples, and a slower crystallization for phosphorous-doped samples, when compared to the crystallization of undoped a Si:H thin films. The peculiarities of B K XES spectra (and observed changes upon SPC) indicate that boron could act as a nucleation center promoting crystallization. Si L2,3 XES spectra of a-Si:H and P-doped poly-Si exhibit spectral features above the valence band maximum at 100 eV that could be attributed to a-Si defect states and n+-dopant states, respectively. The SPC crystallization velocity of Si thin films on ZnO:Al/glass is found to be faster than that on SiNx/glass substrate. Multiple indications for oxidization at the poly-Si/ZnO:Al interface are found based on our Si L2,3 XES analysis. Spatially resolved x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy data support this and even suggest the formation of sub-oxides or zinc silicate as an interface species. The electronic structure of the buried a-SiOx:H(B)/ZnO:Al and µc-Si:H(B)/ZnO:Al interfaces are unraveled with “depth resolved” hard x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. A surface band bending limited to the very surface of the silicon layers is found. The valence band maxima for the Si cover layers and the ZnO:Al TCO are determined and interface induced band bending for both interfaces are derived. At the a-SiOx:H(B)/ZnO:Al interface a tunnel barrier of (0.22 ± 0.31) eV and at µc-Si:H(B)/ZnO:Al interface a tunnel barrier of (-0.08 ± 0.31) eV is determined. This explains a previously empirically found solar cell efficiency increase produced by introducing a µc-Si:H(B) buffer layer between an a-Si p-i-n cell and the ZnO:Al/glass substrate.
Als eine Folge der Miniaturisierung aller integrierten elektrischen Bauteile wird der spezifische Widerstand der TaN/Ta Doppelsperrschichten ein zunehmend wichtiger Parameter für die Schaltgeschwindigkeit beim 32 nm Technologieknoten. In Rahmen dieser Arbeit wird die Optimierung der Abscheidung von TaN/Ta Stapeln durchgeführt, mit dem Ziel die Tantalnitridschichtdicke zu minimieren und das Tantal in der leitfähigeren alpha-Phase wachsen zu lassen. Im ersten Teil der Studie wurde in situ ARXPS verwendet, um das Wachstum von verschiedenen Tantalnitridschichten auf SiO2 und SiCOH in Abhängigkeit der Abscheidezeit, des Stickstoffflusses und der Abscheideleistung zu untersuchen. Im zweiten Teil wurde die kristalline Phase 20 nm dicken Tantal Schichten abgeschieden auf verschiedenen Tantalnitridschichten, die in der Wachstumsstudie vorgestellt worden sind, untersucht. Die wichtigsten Erkenntnisse sind das Auftreten von Tantalkarbid und Tantalsilizid als Zwischenschichtverbindungen bei der Abscheidung auf SiCOH und nur Tantalsilizid für die Abscheidung auf SiO2. Demzufolge wächst alpha-Tantal vorzugsweise auf Tantalkarbid und stickstoffreichen Zwischenschichten, während Silizid an der Schnittstelle das Wachstum von beta-Tantal fördert. Um die Ergebnisse zu überprüfen, wurden zwei weitere Modifikationen des Interfaces untersucht. So wurde eine kleinere Bias-Leistung für eine Abscheidung von Tantalnitrid auf SiO2 benutzt, um die Rolle des Tantalsilizids zu bestätigen. Außerdem wurde eine thermische Behandlung einer dünnen Tantalschicht auf SiCOH durchgeführt, um die Rolle des Tantalkarbids zu bestätigen. Schließlich ergab die Kontaktwiderstandsmessung in Viaketten auf strukturierten Wafern für vier ausgewählte Prozesse tendenziell den gleichen Verlauf wie die Schichtwiderstandsergebnisse der entsprechenden Barrierenaufbauten der Experimente auf blanken Testwafern.
The thesis addresses the design of monolithically integrated radio frequency amplifiers for X-band applications. The focus is on low-voltage low-noise amplifiers and efficient power amplifiers with high output power level. The challenge here is to realize stable amplifiers with remarkable performance metrics at low supply voltages. The general approach for stabilization amplifiers in the above frequency range is the use of a cascode topology which, however, requests higher supply voltages then single transistor operation. By using a special passive frequency-selective feedback, the use of the cascode topology could be avoided, and the amplifiers are stabilized over the entire frequency spectrum. Simultaneously, this feedback is used to neutralize the intrinsic feedback of the transistor at operating frequencies. As a result, a frequency dependent performance degeneration of the transistor can be mitigated.
This work describes the influence of the passive frequency-selective feedback. Its usage as well its limitation are explained using the examples of a realized low noise amplifier and different power amplifiers. Further, the design of radio frequency amplifiers at X-band frequencies that employs silicon-germanium heterojunction bipolar transistors is described. All amplifiers were either incorporated in a 0.25 µm SiGe:C BiCMOS technology or in a 0.35 µm SiGe:C bipolar technology. The main achievements of this work include:
- A 8.7 GHz narrow-band low noise amplifier incorporated in a 0.35 µm SiGe bipolar technology. The noise figure is 2.2 dB and the gain 28 dB at a supply voltage of 3 V. The low noise amplifier was subsequently used for a design of a double-balanced I/Q mixer.
- Two packaged high efficient power amplifiers operating at a center frequency of 12 GHz. They are incorporated in a 0.35 µm SiGe bipolar technology. One amplifier uses a transformer-based output matching network and achieves 30.9 % of power-added efficiency and 23.9 dBm of maximum output power at a supply voltage of 1.8 V. The second amplifier utilizes an LC-balun for impedance matching at the output and a power-added-efficiency of 38 % at 1.8 V is measured. The maximum output power was 23.4 dBm.
- A power amplifier in a 0.35 µm SiGe bipolar technology that uses power combining techniques to achieve 30 dBm (1 W) and 30 % of power-added efficiency at 10 GHz and 2 V supply voltage.
- Two power amplifiers, incorporated in a 0.25 µm SiGe:C BiCMOS technology, demonstrating the capability of a non-advanced SiGe process to be used for radio frequency power applications. Power combining techniques, the use of the passive frequency-selective feedback and layout optimization enables the realization of power amplifiers which exhibit an output power of 30 dBm and a power-added efficiency of 35 % at supply voltages lower as 2.6 V.
Climate change is a major threat to biodiversity and ecologists have identified necessary adaptation strategies. However, little research has been conducted so far on the economics of climate adaptation for biodiversity conservation. Three challenges arise from an economic perspective: How to (1) assess the impact of climate change on the cost-effectiveness of conservation, (2) consider the increasing uncertainty, and (3) evaluate conservation policy instruments under climate change. Addressing these challenges provides a thus far largely unexplored perspective on the economics of biodiversity conservation. This perspective relies on novel methodologies and provides policy-relevant insights.
In this thesis, these challenges are addressed in eight articles. Chapter 2 presents a novel economic evaluation framework to assess policy instruments for climate adaptation. Specific criteria are developed, their relevance for different strategies is assessed and suitable instruments identified.
Chapters 3 and 4 have a methodological focus as two climate-ecological-economic (CEE) models are developed. Chapter 3 presents an applied model integrating detailed sub-models able to assess the cost-effective spatio-temporal allocation of conservation measures. In chapter 4, methods from operations research are developed further to identify optimal time series of reserve networks. In both chapters, cost-effective conservation plans are identified in case study applications.
In chapter 5, CEE modelling is applied to examine the role of uncertainties regarding future climatic conditions. It is found that a trade-off between expected performance and robustness emerges in the case study in the future.
In chapters 6 to 8, CEE modelling is used to assess policy instruments under climate change. Chapter 6 examines an agri-environment scheme: cost-effectiveness requires flexibility in adapting the timing of conservation measures due to species’ adaptations and changes in costs. Chapter 7 examines two versions of land purchase: a “no sale” policy which prohibits sales for ecological reasons and a “sale” policy to enhance spatial flexibility for adaptation. A new trade-off is identified: while “no sale” mainly increases habitat permanence of expanding habitat types, “sale” improves the outcome for increasingly threatened habitat types. Chapter 8 is novel in its comparative analysis of two policy instruments considering spatial and management flexibility in a case study. It is found that in the case study, conservation contracts are more cost-effective than land purchase, but that the relative suitability switches when the conservation agency is able to capture producer rents.
Finally, chapter 9 uses the results of chapters 3 and 5 to develop an innovative teaching tool for students to learn about cost-effective biodiversity conservation under climate change.
Processes of microbial carbon transformation and accumulation during initial stream succession were investigated. Studies were carried out in the experimental watershed Chicken Creek, constructed to investigate ecosystem succession, and additionally in experimental flumes simulating sand-bed streams. In a one year investigation, microbial respiration in soils and sediments along the hydrologic flow path of three stream corridors in the Chicken Creek watershed was measured. Contrary to expectation, respiration rates of rewetted soil and sediment from dry stream channels were similar to rates measured with sediments collected in the perennial channel sections. This suggested that permanent water availability was not a main factor determining metabolic potential in this early successional watershed. In an outdoor flume experiment it was determined whether shallow (1cm) and deep (4cm) sediment disturbances in small sand-bed streams have similar effects on whole-stream metabolism, and whether autotrophic and heterotrophic processes and organisms respond in similar ways. Results suggested that disturbing sediments during early successional stages had no effect on whole-stream metabolism, whereas in advanced stages, deep but not shallow sediment disturbance could lead to a transitory shift towards heterotrophy. Changes in riparian and in-stream vegetation during stream succession come along with different amounts and types of organic matter input in stream ecosystems. It was tested to determine if increasing quality and quantity of litter input changes whole-stream metabolism and activity and structure of microbial communities associated with sediments and leaves. Whole-stream metabolism was found to be similar in all treatments because sediments and leaves were constrained by oxygen and nutrient availability. There seemed to be compensation between the effect of algae fueling microbial activity in open-land treatments and microbial use of allochthonous carbon sources in the litter treatments. Fungal and bacterial activity associated with leaves was unaffected by the background litter standing stock, but the structure of communities was affected. However, leaf quality had a clear effect on microbial activity and community structure with higher activity on tree compared to grass leaves.
In this first volume of the series ‘Ecosystem Development’, the geographic situation of the artificial catchment 'Chicken Creek', its construction and fundamental structures, as well as an outline of the comprehensive monitoring program are introduced. Established in autumn 2005 thanks to financial support from the Brandenburg University of Technology and the State of Brandenburg itself, the monitoring program was set up in order to document the highly dynamic development of this initial-phase system and describe the newly emerging structures both qualitatively and quantitatively. The data provided by the central monitoring project can also be used as the fundamental basis for a number of other scientific projects. The objective of this series is to document this important research site, including the changes occurring during the ongoing initial stages of ecosystem development. Whereas this volume presents the site itself and the general concept of the monitoring investigations, the following volumes in the series will present the results gathered during each phase of the investigative period.
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wird auf grundlegende Unterschiede im Brennverfahren von Benzin- und Erdgasmotoren eingegangen. Außerdem werden verschiedene Maßnahmen dargestellt, die bei einer konsequenten Auslegung des Brennverfahrens auf den Kraftstoff Erdgas zu deutlichen Wirkungsgradvorteilen führen und somit den Nachteil der geringen Speicherdichte von Erdgas (Reichweite von Erdgasfahrzeugen) verringert.
Die vorliegende Arbeit soll dem interessierten Ingenieur und Studenten des Maschinenbaus einen Überblick über die Nutzung gasförmiger Kraftstoffe für den Antrieb von Kraftfahrzeugen geben. Auf die Grundlagen der Thermodynamik und der motorischen Verbrennung wird dort näher eingegangen, wo es für das Verständnis der Zusammenhänge unabdingbar ist. Hier sei auch auf die einschlägige Literatur verwiesen. Ziel ist es zu zeigen, inwiefern sich die Brennverfahren für einen kleinvolumigen Pkw-Motor von den Großgasmotoren hinsichtlich des Nutzungsprofils unterscheiden und welche Wege zur Wirkungsgradsteigerung möglich sind.
The use of open-porous, flow-permeable materials is one possible method to reduce the generation of flow induced noise, for example at the trailing edge of wings or airfoils. Subject of the present dissertation is an experimental study of the noise generation at the trailing edge of porous airfoils compared to that of a non-porous reference airfoil of equal chord length. This includes the investigation of the mechanisms responsible for the noise reduction. Additionally, it is of special interest how the different parameters of the porous materials affect the noise generation. Detailed experiments were conducted on a non-porous reference airfoil and a set of 16 porous airfoils at various flow speeds in an open jet wind tunnel. All measurements were performed in subsonic flow, the corresponding maximum chord based Reynolds number is approximately 780,000. The porous materials are mainly characterized by their air flow resistivity. The acoustic measurements were performed using microphone array technology and the resulting data were processed by the application of an advanced three-dimensional beamforming algorithm. To include the aerodynamic efficiency of the porous airfoils in the analysis of the potential trailing edge noise reduction, the corresponding lift forces and drag forces have been measured. Additional hot-wire measurements in the turbulent boundary layer of a subset of the airfoils were performed to enable conclusions on the physical mechanisms that are responsible for the trailing edge noise reduction. In the examined range of frequencies, it was found that a noticeable trailing edge noise reduction can be achieved through the use of porous airfoils despite losses in aerodynamic efficiency. The highest noise reduction per unit lift force was measured for porous airfoils with medium to high air flow resistivities. While a trailing edge noise reduction was observed mainly at medium frequencies, the trailing edge noise spectra of porous airfoils with low and medium air flow resistivities were found to exceed the trailing edge noise of the reference airfoil at high frequencies. This is assumed to be a contribution of surface roughness noise, since the porous materials are characterized by an increased surface roughness compared to the rather smooth surface of the reference airfoil. The boundary layer thickness as well as the boundary layer displacement thickness of the porous airfoils are noticeably larger than that measured at the reference airfoil. The examination of spectra of the turbulent velocity fluctuations showed that the peak measured above the trailing edge of the porous airfoils is at a noticeably lower frequency than that measured at the reference airfoil. Additionally, turbulence spectra measured at different chord positions along the surface of the airfoils revealed that the cause of the measured trailing edge noise reduction at medium and high frequencies may be a shift of the spectra toward lower frequencies with increasing chord position. And while this shift could be observed for both the reference airfoil and the porous airfoils, it is notably stronger for the porous airfoils. The results of the hot-wire measurements also lead to the assumption that the high frequency range of the velocity fluctuations is damped when the turbulence convects over the surface of the porous airfoils, an effect called hydrodynamic damping. Based on turbulence spectra measured above the trailing edge of five airfoils, a simple trailing edge noise prediction model was developed following the fundamental theory by Ffowcs Williams and Hall on the generation of noise in the vicinity of the edge of a semi-infinite flat plate. It is thereby assumed that the spectral shape of the trailing edge noise is related to the spectral shape of the turbulent velocity fluctuations in close proximity to the trailing edge, while the overall amplitude is determined by a convection velocity that is proportional to the mean flow velocity of the fluctuations. One possible application of the resulting model is the prediction of the trailing edge noise based on the input of the measured turbulence spectrum and the corresponding mean flow velocity close to the trailing edge of an airfoil. A more convenient application of the model is the trailing edge noise prediction based on an estimated turbulence spectrum and the corresponding mean flow velocity based on approximations developed in the present dissertation, without the necessity of detailed constant temperature anemometry measurements. The agreement between predicted and measured trailing edge noise spectra was found to be satisfying for both cases, especially when considering the rather basic approach of the model.
The very soft and flow-permeable plumage is among the special adaptations of the owl that the silent flight is attributed to. Using a specially designed apparatus that provides a low-speed volume flow of air through a small sample of porous materials, measurements of the air flow permeability were performed in accordance to ISO 9053 on a total of 39 prepared wing specimen from six different bird species, including three species of silently flying owls and three non-silently flying bird species. The resulting data set described in the present paper contains the static airflow resistance measured at different positions on the wing.
In der Vergangenheit haben spekulative Überbewertungen auf den Vermögensgütermärkten starke globale Auswirkungen auf die Realwirtschaft gehabt. Es stellt sich die Frage, ob und wie Zentralbanken zukünftig diese Fehlentwicklungen kontrollieren und steuern wollen. Im ersten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit wird ein Identifikationsverfahren für Aktienpreisblasen mit Einheitswurzeltests entwickelt, welches anschließend auf europäische Aktienpreisindices angewendet wird. Es zeigt sich, dass mit dem Identifikationsverfahren die relevanten Preisblasen von 1985 bis 2015 für Europa identifiziert werden konnten.
Der zweite Teil der Arbeit widmet sich der Reaktion von Vermögenspreisen auf geldpolitische und makroprudentielle Maßnahmen. Dazu wurden mit Hilfe von VARMA-Modellen (1,1) empirisch untersucht, welche Auswirkungen unkonventionelle geldpolitische Maßnahmen auf die Entwicklung von europäischen Aktienpreisindices haben. Es zeigt sich, dass die Wirkung der ersten unkonventionellen geldpolitischen Maßnahme auf die autoregressive Struktur und die Spill-Over-Effekte zu anderen europäischen Indices noch besonders groß ist und bei den anschließenden Maßnahmen abnimmt.
Auf Basis der Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit ist eine Steuerung der Entwicklung der Vermögenspreise durch die Zentralbanken mit Hilfe geldpolitischer Maßnahmen zu empfehlen.
Die Interaktion einer turbulenten Zuströmung mit der Vorderkante eines aerodynamischen Profils ist ein dominierender Schallentstehungsmechanismus, der beispielsweise an Ventilatoren in Klimaanlagen, Windkrafträdern und Rotor-Stator-Konfigurationen in Turbomaschinen auftritt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die breitbandige Schallentstehung infolge dieses Mechanismus experimentell untersucht. Der Versuchsaufbau im aeroakustischen Windkanal besteht aus einem Profil und einem Zylinder mit kreisrundem Querschnitt, der zur Generierung der turbulenten Profilzuströmung stromauf des Profils installiert ist (Zylinder-Profil-Konfiguration). Die Profilzuströmung wird nacheinander durch Nutzung von fünf Zylindern unterschiedlicher Durchmesser und durch das Einstellen fünf verschiedener Abstände zwischen Zylinder und Profilvorderkante variiert. Insgesamt wird die aeroakustische Schallentstehung an der Profilvorderkante für 50 Zylinder-Profil-Konfigurationen untersucht, wobei die Zylinder-Zuströmgeschwindigkeit für jede Konfiguration zusätzlich in 26 Schritten zwischen 26 m/s und 72 m/s vorgegeben wird. Der von den Experimenten abgedeckte Machzahlbereich liegt zwischen 0,075 und 0,21 und der Bereich der mit dem Zylinderdurchmesser gebildeten Reynoldszahl liegt zwischen 8,3·10³ und 7,3·10⁴. Der generierte Schall wurde mit einem Mikrofonarray aufgezeichnet. Der infolge der turbulenten Zuströmung an der Profilvorderkante generierte Schall wird während der Analyse der Mikrofonarraymessdaten mit erweiterten Beamforming-Algorithmen (Entfaltungsverfahren) von den anderen Schallquellen getrennt. Somit ist sichergestellt, dass ausschließlich die Schallentstehung an der Vorderkante des Profils und hiermit die Schallentstehung durch turbulente Zuströmung untersucht wird. Insgesamt wurden über 2000 einzelne akustische Messungen durchgeführt, die zusammengenommen ein Datenvolumen von ca. 1,7 TByte aufweisen. Neben den akustischen Messungen wurden für ausgewählte Zylinder-Profil-Konfigurationen Hitzdrahtmessungen durchgeführt, um die Profilzuströmung im Bereich der Profilvorderkante zu charakterisieren. Auf Basis der Analyse der umfangreichen Messdaten wird mit Hilfe einer Dimensionsanalyse ein empirisches Modell zur Abschätzung der Schallentstehung bei inhomogener turbulenter Zuströmung entwickelt. Zudem werden einige für homogene Zuströmung vorhandene Modelle für inhomogene Zuströmbedingungen adaptiert. Die Eignung der getesteten Modelle wird anhand des Vergleichs von Modell- und Messergebnissen diskutiert.
Die Reaktion von Cyanatestermonomeren läuft in einem typischen Stufenwachstumsprozess ab. Die entstandenen Netzwerkpolymere werden aufgrund ihrer Eigenschaften, wie hohe Temperaturbeständigkeit, hohe Glastemperaturen, gute Adhäsion sowie niedrige Dielektrizitätskonstanten, als Laminate, Klebstoffe, Verbundwerkstoffe und in der Elektroindustrie eingesetzt. Strukturelle und chemische Modifikationen können durch Verwendung von Comonomeren, z.B. mono- und polyfunktionellen Phenolen, erzielt werden. Bei der Polymerisation von mono- und difunktionellen Cyanaten werden in dieser Arbeit Thiophenol, 1-Dodecanthiol und Benzylalkohol als Comonomere eingesetzt. Die Analyse der Molekülstrukturen und der Polymerverteilungen der Reaktionsprodukte erfolgte mittels Massenspektrometrie (MALDI-TOF-MS) und Hochleistungflüssigchromatographie (HPLC). Abschließend wurden Aktivierungsenergien verschiedener Cyanat/Comonomer-Mischungen bestimmt.
Die Holz-Beton-Verbundbauweise kam bislang bei Rad- und Fußwegbrücken kaum zum Einsatz. Eine Ursache dafür ist die Tatsache, dass das Trag- und Verformungsverhalten der wenigen für die Übertragung der hohen Schubkräfte zwischen Holz und Beton geeigneten Schubverbindungsmittel bisher nur unzureichend experimentell untersucht wurden und somit dem planenden Ingenieur keine statistisch gesicherten Bruchlasten und Verschiebungsmoduln zur Verfügung stehen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit ist das Trag- und Verformungsverhalten von zwei neu entwickelten Schubverbindungsmitteln, der Polymerbeton- sowie der Konsol-Nocke, mit Hilfe von Bauteilversuchen umfangreich analysiert worden. Auf der Grundlage von Kurzzeit-Scherversuchen wurden für beide Schubverbindungsmittel Nachweisverfahren erarbeitet, die eine Bemessung im Grenzzustand der Tragfähigkeit ermöglichen. Mit Hilfe von Langzeit-Scher- und -Biegeversuchen wurde neben dem zeitabhängigen Verhalten der gesamten Verbundkonstruktion auch das Kriechverhalten der Schubverbindungsmittel experimentell untersucht. Das beobachtete Langzeitverhalten der experimentell untersuchten Verbundträger konnte mit Hilfe eines einfachen numerischen Simulationsprogramms, das im Rahmen der Arbeit entwickelt wurde, hinreichend genau beschrieben werden. Da numerische Verfahren für die praktische Anwendung nur bedingt geeignet sind, wurde ein Näherungsverfahren abgeleitet, mit dem das Langzeitverhalten von Verbundkonstruktionen aus Holz und Beton vorherbestimmt werden kann. Dieses vereinfachte Nachweisverfahren berücksichtigt neben dem unterschiedlichen Kriechverhalten von Holz und Beton erstmalig auch das Schwinden bzw. Quellen dieser Baustoffe sowie das zeitabhängige Verhalten der Schubverbindungsmittel.
Verbesserung des Ermüdungsverhaltens von γ-TiAl-Legierungen durch mechanische Oberflächenbehandlung
(2011)
Gegenstand der Arbeit war die Untersuchung mechanischer Oberflächenbehandlungen zur Verbesserung des Ermüdungsverhaltens von hochfesten γ-TiAl-Legierungen TNB-V2 und TNB-V5. Zu diesem Zweck wurden die Verfahren Kugelstrahlen und Festwalzen angewendet. Die Charakterisierung des Ermüdungsverhaltens erfolgte unter Umlaufbiegebeanspruchung bei Raumtemperatur (R = -1, 60 Hz). Für die Bewertung des Verfestigungspotentials durch mechanische Oberflächenbehandlung wurden die prozessinduzierten Randschichteigenschaften wie Rauheit, Eigenspannungen, Mikrohärte, Halbwertsbreite und Mikrostrukturänderungen in Abhängigkeit von Verfahrensparametern analysiert. Im Hinblick auf die vorgesehenen Hochtemperaturanwendungen von Titanaluminiden wurden außerdem Untersuchungen zur Stabilität der Randschichtverfestigung gegenüber thermischer Erholung und Ausheilung durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen, dass durch Kugelstrahlen zyklisch stabile Druckeigenspannungen in der Randschicht erzeugt werden, wodurch eine deutliche Verbesserung der Wechselfestigkeit gegenüber dem elektrolytisch polierten Referenzzustand erreicht wird. Festwalzen hat keine Auswirkung auf die Dauerfestigkeit, was auf den nahezu nicht vorhandenen Mikrohärteanstieg direkt an der Oberfläche sowie auf den Abbau von Druckeigenspannungen nach wenigen Zyklen zurückzuführen ist. Spanende Bearbeitung durch Drehen führt zu vergleichbaren Randschichtverfestigungen mit ähnlicher Tiefenwirkung wie beim Kugelstrahlen, sowie zu einem deutlichen Anstieg der Wechselfestigkeit gegenüber dem Referenzzustand. Im Temperaturbereich zwischen 500 °C und 650 °C werden die Druckeigenspannungen schnell abgebaut, so dass die Oberflächenrauheit von entscheidender Bedeutung wird. Die verbleibende Randschichtverfestigung ist effektiver, wenn die Oberflächenrauheit reduziert wird, so dass das Abpolieren der Oberfläche nach dem Kugelstrahlen empfehlenswert ist. Oberhalb 700 °C ist die Randschichtverfestigung durch Kugelstrahlen nicht mehr effektiv, da die induzierten Punktdefekte sehr schnell ausheilen und in der verformten Randschicht Rekristallisationsvorgänge ablaufen.
Im Automobilbereich nimmt die Komplexität eingebetteter Systeme mit steigenden Ansprüchen bezüglich Qualität und Sicherheit, aber auch aus ökologischen und ökonomischen Aspekten stetig zu. Zum einen wird dies erreicht durch die Anzahl der Steuergeräte und Sensoren und deren Vernetzung, zum anderen durch den rasanten technologischen Fortschritt in der Halbleiterindustrie. Durch die hohe Integrationsdichte und die dadurch erhöhte Sensibilisierung gegenüber potentieller Fehlerquellen während des Produktionsprozesses lassen sich bei der Halbleiterfertigung defekte Chips oder solche mit erhöhter Fehleranfälligkeit nicht vermeiden. Somit werden Ausbeute und Lebensdauer hochintegrierter Schaltungen (IC) reduziert. Da diese vermehrt Einzug in die Automobilindustrie halten, ist es wichtig, einen hohen Qualitätsstandard und, gerade in eingebetteten Prozessoren für sicherheitskritische Anwendungen, eine hohe Fehler- und Ausfallresistenz zu gewährleisten.
In einem solch komplexen elektronischen System wäre es daher wünschenswert einen Fehler möglichst frühzeitig zu erkennen, bevor er zu einer Störung essentieller Funktionen führt. Kommt es zum Teil- oder gar Systemausfall, so ist es darüber hinaus von groÿer Bedeutung, einen einmal festgestellten Fehler im Nachhinein in der Werkstatt oder als Rückläufer beim Hersteller schnell und eindeutig reproduzieren und diagnostizieren zu können. Die Ursache eines gemeldeten Fehlers in der Fahrzeugelektronik ist aber häufig nicht einwandfrei feststellbar. So besteht im Fehlerfall nur die Möglichkeit, Systemkomponenten anhand der Fehlerbeschreibung auf Verdacht auszutauschen. Eine nachträgliche Fehleranalyse durch den Halbleiterhersteller erfordert hohen Aufwand, da der IC unter anderem erst von der Platine gelöst werden muss.
Im Produktionstest beim Halbleiterhersteller werden hochauflösende strukturorientierte Verfahren angewandt, um fehlerhafte Chips zu identifizieren und auszusortieren. Hierzu werden in den IC eingebrachte Teststrukturen mit separaten Zugangskanälen genutzt, um eine hohe Fehlerüberdeckung in kurzer Testzeit zu garantieren. Der Testzugang zu dieser Produktionstestlogik steht nach dem Packaging und somit nach dem Aufbringen auf die Steuergeräteplatine nicht mehr zu Verfügung.
Die vorliegende Dissertation präsentiert ein Konzept, das einen für die Diagnose eingebetteter Systeme erforderlichen strukturorientierten Test unter Verwendung der schaltungsinternen Produktionstestlogik und serieller Standardschnittstellen realisiert. Somit wird ein Test eines Automotive-ICs mit hoher diagnostischer Auflösung über eine vorhandene Steuergeräteschnittstelle im Zielsystem (Kraftfahrzeug) ohne Demontage des Steuergerätes und der ICs verfügbar gemacht. Der Testzugang setzt dabei die maximale über die genutzte Standardschnittstelle realisierbare Datenrate um. Dem Steuergerätehersteller kann dadurch ein erweiterter Produktionstest bereitgestellt werden, der weit über den Leiterplattentest hinaus eine nachweisbare hohe Prüfschärfe bietet. Kann die Störung einer Systemfunktionalität durch die Diagnosemöglichkeit bereits im Feld, das heißt, während eines Werkstattaufenthalts, eindeutig auf einen fehlerhaften IC zurückgeführt werden, lassen sich wiederholte Fehlersuchen und teure Reparaturen vermeiden. Der Halbleiterhersteller kann zudem die aus der Diagnose eines defekten ICs gewonnenen Informationen nutzen, um während des Fertigungsprozesses und des Fertigungstests entsprechende Maßnahmen zu ergreifen, mit denen die Chipqualität verbessert werden kann.
Neben dem Testzugang umfasst das entworfene Konzept auch einen integrierten Selbsttest, der strukturelle Fehler des ICs bereits vor einer möglichen Auswirkung auf die Funktionalität des Systems identifizieren kann und somit die Systemzuverlässigkeit erhöht.
Between 2000 and 2015, the services sector grew by 23% in OECD countries, with around two-thirds of the working population employed in this sector. In the European Union, 72.1% of the labor force worked in the services sector in 2018. With a growing global population, the demand for services is also increasing, making increasing service productivity an important research goal.
Public and private service companies are subject to different incentive structures that influence their approach to productivity. Public service enterprises, especially in the social, health, and education sectors, play a critical role in society. Improving public service productivity is therefore essential.
Two research questions are addressed: What factors have the greatest impact on the performance of service workers? How can performance improvement be expressed by managing the influencing factors of frontline employees? By focusing on frontline employees, this dissertation recognizes their essential role in increasing service productivity. The goal of the thesis is to gain insight into the factors that influence their productivity in public service.
The dissertation reviews service productivity models in detail. Differences and connections between the various models and schools of models are discussed. Grönroos and Ojasalo's model of service productivity is selected as the theoretical framework for the empirical study to examine the factors influencing frontline employees. The systematic selection of influencing factors as well as the evaluation of previous research on these factors, reveals research gaps, which are translated into hypotheses. The majority of the data for the empirical part comes from public service companies. The designed questionnaire serves as a starting point for the development of a scale for empirical validation for one part, a component of the Grönroos-Ojasalo model. The research results offer a basis for action for practitioners who want to achieve productivity improvements.
The goal of this thesis is the analysis of the challenges and finding solutions for the design of mm-wave transceivers. The work presented here is focused on design of transmitter (TX) components, which are critical for the performance of the whole analog front-end. Phase-locked loop (PLL) phase noise is optimized, an image-rejection filter and a high 1 dB compression point (P1dB) power amplifier (PA) are designed. The PLL phase noise optimization is presented and different PLL topologies are compared. A new optimized recipe for calculating PLL parameters of a forth order PLL is presented. Using this approach the spurious sidebands can be reduced by up to 10 dB. The image-rejection filter chapter analyzes the challenges related to the design of the integrated image–rejection filter. The analysis presented here is the first on integrated filters for the 60 GHz band, because the previously published work dealt with on-board filters. The main problems related to the design of integrated filters arise from the low quality factor of the integrated resonators. The effects are high insertion loss and low selectivity. Two measures to reduce the insertion loss of the image–rejection filters were suggested. One is to design the filter as broadband. This measure deteriorates selectivity, so the minimum required image–rejection will limit the width of the passband. The second measure is to design the filter as broadband with non-equidistant transmission zeros (i.e. asynchronously tuned filter). This measure will improve both the insertion loss and the image–rejection. The challenges related to the design of mm-wave PAs with high P1dB are analyzed and the procedure of the PA design is presented. The difficulties related to the PA design and layout are discussed and optimum solutions presented. Limits of different power combining techniques for integrated PAs are discussed. Effects of poor on-chip ground connection are analyzed. Different causes for P1dB degradation are analyzed. The produced PA features a differential cascode topology. The layout is symmetrical and presents a virtual ground on the symmetry line for the differential signal. The optimized schematic and a symmetrically drawn layout resulted in a 17 dBm measured P1dB. It was the highest reported P1dB in 60 GHz SiGe PAs when it was published. The fully integrated TX was used for data transmission with data rate of 3.6 Gbit/s (with coding 4.8 Gbit/s) over 15 meters. This is the best result in the class of 60 GHz AFEs without beamforming.
Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit bestand in der Entwicklung eines schnellanalytischen Verfahrens zur Bestimmung aromatischer Spurenstoffe in Wasserproben. Das Verfahren basiert auf der Kopplung der Festphasenmikroextraktion (SPME) mit der Lasermassenspektrometrie (LAMS). Für die Probenanreicherung wurde ein vollautomatisiertes Verfahren in Form der „in-tube SPME“ entwickelt. Nach der Anreicherung werden die Analyten gaschromatographisch getrennt und in einem kommerziellen Ionenfallen - Massenspektrometer nachgewiesen, dass für die Laserionisation modifiziert wurde. Relevante Verfahrensparameter (Sensitivität, Linearität, Reproduzierbarkeit…) wurden für Polyzyklische Aromatische Kohlenwasserstoffe (PAK) überprüft. Die in der Wasseranalytik geforderten Nachweisgrenzen zur Untersuchung von polyzyklischen Aromaten werden mit der vollautomatisierten, analytischen Technik problemlos erreicht. Die Zeitdauer für eine Analyse ist dabei gering. Bei einer Anreicherungszeit von nur 30 min wurden PAK’s bis zu einer Konzentration von 1 ng/l nachgewiesen. Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchung von Umweltproben zeigen, dass mit der entwickelten instrumentellen Technik ein schnellanalytische Methode zur Verfügung steht, die sowohl im Labor, als auch im Feld zur spurenanalytischen Bestimmung von Aromaten in Wasserproben eingesetzt werden kann.
Die Arbeit stellt das prinzipielle Vorgehen der Mehrkriterienoptimierung zunächst an Beispielen des virtuellen Prototyping dar. Die Anwendung von Optimierungsalgorithmen auf Parameteridentifikationsaufgaben führt zu Mehrkriterien-Mehrmodell-Optimierung, bei der unbekannte Systemparameter aus Vergleichen zwischen Messungen und Simulationen durch ein schrittweises Vorgehen auf Basis angepasster Versuche, Teilmodelle und Kriterien ermittelt werden können. Bei der Experiment-gekoppelten Hardware-in-the-Loop Optimierung verursacht die Streuung der Messergebnisse auf Grund des nicht vermeidbaren Messrauschens Probleme bei der Konvergenz der Optimierungsverfahren. Abhilfe schafft hier eine angepsste Funktionswert- und Gradientenberechnung auf Basis eines Approximationsverfahrens. Die Vorteile dieses neu entwickelten Verfahrens sind die Verwendung einer Ansatzfunktion zur Elimination von Messfehlern, die Speicherung aller Messwerte für eine eventuelle Weiterverarbeitung und die damit verbundene Minimierung der Anzahl notwendiger Versuche, sowie das Sicherheitskonzept zur Vermeidung kritischer Versuchszustände durch eine implementierte Schrittweitenbegrenzung.
One of the standard approaches for solving discrete optimization problems which include the aspect of time, such as the traveling salesman problem with time windows, is to derive a so-called time-indexed formulation. If the problem has an underlying structure that can be described by a graph, the time-indexed formulation is usually based on a different, extended graph, commonly referred to as the time-expanded graph. The time-expanded graph can often be derived in such a way that all time constraints are incorporated in its topology, and therefore algorithms for the corresponding time-independent variant become applicable. The downside of this approach is that the sets of vertices and arcs of the time-expanded graph are much larger than the ones of the original graph. In recent works, however, it has been shown that for many practical applications a partial graph expansion that might contain time-infeasible paths, often suffices to find a proven optimal solution. These approaches, instead, iteratively refine the original graph and solve a relaxation of the time-expanded formulation in each iteration. When the solution of the current relaxation allows for a feasible schedule, an optimal solution can be derived from it and the algorithm terminates.
In this work, we first present new ideas that allow for the propagation of information about the optimal solution of a coarser graph to a more refined graph and show how these can be used in algorithms. More precisely, we present two general algorithms for solving Mixed Integer Linear Program formulations which we call iterative refinement and branch-and-refine. Iterative refinement basically is solving relaxations of the problem until a feasible solution to the original problem is found. Branch-and-refine is a kind of branch-and-bound algorithm that allows for the graph refinement to be carried out during the exploration of the branch-and-bound tree. For demonstrating the practical relevance of these algorithms, we not only study them in the context of academic examples but also apply them to two real-world problems. The first is a problem from the literature, where small passenger air-crafts have to be routed and scheduled to serve flight requests while fulfilling a variety of conditions on, for example, fuel consumption, weight, and detours. We show here that refinement algorithms can be used to improve the best known results from the literature. The second problem we consider is the task of optimally scheduling deliveries and charging times of delivery robots such that delays are minimized. In this case, we show that refinement algorithms perform better than a direct solution approach making use of state-of-the-art solvers.
A tourism company that offers fly-in safaris is faced with the challenge to route and schedule its fleet of airplanes in an optimal way. Over the course of a given time horizon several groups of tourists have to be picked up at airports and flown to their destinations within a certain time-window. Furthermore the number of available seats, the consumption of fuel, the maximal takeoff weight, and restrictions on the detour of the individual groups have to be taken into account. The task of optimally scheduling the airplanes and tour groups belongs to the class of vehicle routing problems with pickup and delivery and time-windows. A flow-over-flow formulation on the time expanded graph of the airports was used in the literature in order to model this problem as a mixed integer linear program. Most of the benchmark problems however could not be solved within a time limit of three hours, which was overcome by formulating the problem for a simplified (time-free) graph and the use of an incumbent callback to check for feasibility in the original graph. While this approach led to very good results for instances, where few time-free solutions were infeasible for the original problem, some instances remained unsolved. In order to overcome this problem we derive two new exact formulations that include time as variables. Although these formulations by themselves are not better than the approach from the literature, they allow for an effective construction of graphs which can be interpreted as intermediate graphs between the graph of airports and the expanded graph with vertices for each visit. Using similar relaxation techniques to the time-free approach and constructing these graphs based on solutions of the relaxations guarantees that only critical airports are expanded. A computational study was performed in order to compare the new formulations to the methods from the literature. Within a time limit of 3 hours the new approach was able to find proven optimal solutions for all previously unsolved benchmark instances. Furthermore the average computation time of all benchmark instances was reduced by 90 percent.
One of the standard approaches for solving time-dependent discrete optimization problems, such as the travelling salesman problem with time-windows or the shortest path problem with time-windows is to derive a so-called time-indexed formulation. If the problem has an underlying structure that can be described by a graph, the time-indexed formulation is usually based on a different, extended graph, commonly referred to as the time-expanded graph. The time-expanded graph can often be derived in such a way that all time constraints are incorporated in its topology, and therefore algorithms for the corresponding time-independent variant become applicable. The downside of this approach is, that the sets of vertices and arcs of the time-expanded graph are much larger than the ones of the original graph. In recent works, however, it has been shown that for many practical applications a partial graph expansion, that might contain time infeasible paths, often suffices to find a proven optimal solution. These approaches, instead, iteratively refine the original graph and solve a relaxation of the time-expanded formulation in each iteration. When the solution of the current relaxation is time feasible an optimal solution can be derived from it and the algorithm terminates. In this work we present new ideas, that allow for the propagation of information about the optimal solution of a coarser graph to a more refined graph and show how these can be used in algorithms, which are based on graph refinement. More precisely we present a new algorithm for solving Mixed Integer Linear Program (MILP) formulations of time-dependent problems that allows for the graph refinement to be carried out during the exploration of the branch-and-bound tree instead of restarting whenever the optimal solution was found to be infeasible. For demonstrating the practical relevance of this algorithm we present numerical results on its application to the shortest path problem with time-windows and the traveling salesman problem with time-windows.
We present a general numerical solution method for control problems with PDE-defined state variables over a finite set of binary or continuous control variables. We show empirically that a naive approach that applies a numerical discretization scheme to the PDEs (and if necessary a linearization scheme) to derive constraints for a mixed-integer linear program (MILP) leads to systems that are too large to be solved with state-of-the-art solvers for MILPs, especially if we desire an accurate approximation of the state variables. Our framework comprises two techniques to mitigate the rise of computation times with increasing discretization level parameters:
First, the linear system is solved for a basis of the control space in a preprocessing step. Second, certain constraints are just imposed on demand via the IBM ILOG CPLEX feature of a lazy constraint callback. These techniques are compared with an approach where the relations obtained by the discretization of the continuous constraints are directly included in the MILP. We demonstrate our approach on two examples: modeling of the spread of wildfire and the mitigation of water contamination. In both examples the computational results demonstrate that the solution time is significantly reduced by our methods. In particular, the dependence of the computation time on the size of the spatial discretization of the PDE is significantly reduced.
In recent years parcel volumes reached record highs. The logistics industry is seeking new innovative concepts to keep pace. For densely populated areas delivery robots are a promising alternative to conventional trucking. These electric robots drive autonomously on sidewalks and deliver urgent goods, such as express parcels, medicine, or meals. The limited cargo space and battery capacity of these vehicles necessitates a depot visit after each customer served. The problem can be formulated as an electric vehicle routing problem with soft time windows and a single unit capacity. The goal is to serve all customers such that the quadratic sum of delays is minimized and each vehicle operates within its battery bounds. To solve this problem, we formulate an MIQP and present an expanded formulation based on a layered graph. For this layered graph we derive two solution approaches based on relaxations, which use less nodes and arcs. The first, Iterative Refinement, always solves the current relaxation to optimality and refines the graph if the solution is not feasible for the expanded formulation. This is repeated until a proven optimal solution is found. The second, Branch and Refine, integrates the graph refinement into a branch and bound framework avoiding restarts. Computational experiments performed on modified Solomon instances demonstrate the advantage of using our solution approaches and show that Branch and Refine outperforms Iterative Refinement in all studied parameter configurations.
Nanotechnologies allow for the production of completely new materials in a wide range of industries and technical fields and are also recognised as one of the most important technological sectors for the future. The growing nanotechnological industry is rapidly generating new forms of materials; however, little is known about the behaviour of these substances, in particular their particle form and their impact on different ecological systems and the life within them. Concerns have been raised about the safety and regulation of nanomaterials, following a number of studies that indicated that some nanomaterials are able to cause adverse effects on living objects. This data, as well as increasing production volumes and commercialisation, the capability of crossing biological barriers and the increased physico-chemical activities of nanoparticles, when compared to their bulk counterparts, have triggered concern (Baró et al., 2001; Kear et al., 2012) about their impacts on health and safety.
In Germany, nanoparticles, nanotechnological products, their production processes and their disposal are generally subject to the prevailing law of the German legal system, especially with respect to the authorization of equipment, permissions regarding chemicals and other product groups, and the protection of employees and the environment. With regard to nanotechnologies, however, the question arises as to whether the present legal regulations are adequate, and/or whether regulative gaps occur because of specific new products, materials or process characteristics. Accordingly, based on the analysis of the relevant state-of-the-art technology and science, and an evaluation of existing, as well as projectable, future national legislation on this matter, this work aims to identify regulative gaps in the relevant standardisation procedures and to point out possible adjustments.
Although nanomaterials are covered by the general scope of many of the existing legislative frameworks, it is often unclear if current regulation is actually applicable for specific questions of nanomaterials and their diverse applications. In particular, there is a lack of sufficient knowledge of the risks, which could lead to imbalanced legal protection against any threats that may arise. However, it is recognised that adjustments are needed, and legal amendments have been repeatedly proposed by expert committees, policymakers, industry members and non-governmental organisations (European Parliament, 2009). Nonetheless, very few revisions have been made to date, so the existing regulations are not considered adequate to deal with all kinds of nanomaterials in both the short and long term. Current legislation needs to be adapted immediately to reflect the challenges posed by current nanomaterials and their applications.
The thesis discusses a fundamental question of reconstruction on the Si(100) surface as well as three material combinations, which are important for perspective microelectronics technologies: Si/Pr2O3/Si(100), W/WNx/poly-Si/SiO2/Si(100), and CoSix/Si(100). A refined mixed ad-dimer model is developed for the Si(100)-c(4´4) reconstruction on the basis of scanning tunnelling microscopy investigations. A thermal stability of Pr2O3/Si(100) and Si/Pr2O3/Si(100) structures is studied with ion sputtering assisted Auger electron spectroscopy. The latter technique is also applied for precise determination of O and N content in the new W/WNx/poly-Si/SiO2/Si(100) structure, and to study the preferential sputtering of Si in CoSi2, CoSi, and Co2Si phases on Si(100) surface. The WSix/poly-Si/SiO2/Si(100) system, which was previously used in microelectronics, is studied for comparison. The preferential sputtering of Si in WSix is shown to be qualitatively similar as in the CoSix case.
The dissertation covers the physical, design, simulation and measurement aspects of extremely high Q precision oscillators for space applications. Existing design approaches and methods are evaluated, and it is shown that only physically complete models can deliver a good agreement between theory and experiments. A prototype was built showing very good phase noise and stability.
In der frühen Phase des Innovationsprozesses, dem Front-End of Innovation (FEI), stehen Unternehmen vor der Herausforderung, eine stetig wachsende Menge an Informationen in immer kürzerer Zeit zu evaluieren, um wettbewerbsfähig zu bleiben. Entweder investieren sie einen beträchtlichen Zeitaufwand in eine strukturierte Daten- und Informationsanalyse mit der Gefahr eines zu späten Markteintritts, oder sie folgen ihrer Intuition, mit der Gefahr nicht die Kunden- und Markterwartungen zu treffen. Beide Szenarien stellen ein beträchtliches Risiko für den Fortbestand eines Unternehmens dar, insbesondere wenn dieses keine Forschungs- und Entwicklungsaktivitäten betreibt und somit kein formaler Innovationsprozess etabliert ist.
Die vorliegende Arbeit greift dieses Dilemma auf und entwickelt, basierend auf dem Design-Science-Research-Ansatz, ein IT-gestütztes Bewertungsmodell. Dieses ermöglicht datenbasierte Entscheidungen abgestimmt auf die von einem Unternehmen verfolgte Innovationsstrategie. Als Datenbasis werden Patente, wissenschaftliche Veröffentlichungen, Messeneuheiten, Informationen zu Start-ups, sowie Produkt- und Dienstleistungsverzeichnisse berücksichtigt. Eingabegrößen für das Bewertungsmodell sind die Beschreibung eines Innovations-Suchfeldes, sowie die im Unternehmen vorhandenen Kernkompetenzen. Mithilfe semantischer Informationsextraktion, Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) und Fuzzy-Logik werden die drei Indikatoren Marktreife (Entwicklungsstand), Marktorientierung (Ausrichtung auf Kunden-/ Markterwartungen) und Anschlussfähigkeit (Übereinstimmung mit den im Unternehmen vorhandenen Kernkompetenzen) für ein Innovations-Suchfeld bestimmt. Mithilfe dieser Indikatoren lassen sich alternative Innovations-Suchfelder bewerten und vergleichen und das für das Unternehmen attraktivste und aussichtsreichste bestimmen.
Der entwickelte Prototyp wird abschließend mit Hilfe von Fokusgruppen für die Branchen Technischer Handel und Verkehr/ Logistik validiert. Die Validierung zeigt, dass der Ansatz in der Praxis geeignet ist, die Entscheidungsfindung im FEI zu unterstützen und eine transparente Bewertung von Innovations-Suchfeldern ohne spezifisches Domänenwissen vorzunehmen. Möglich wird dies, da das Bewertungsmodell keine Vorstrukturierung eines Innovations-Suchfeldes, beispielsweise durch Ontologien als Eingangsgröße, voraussetzt. Durch die Einbeziehung der relevanten Informationsquellen von Beginn an lassen sich Rücksprünge vermeiden und Zeitvorteile realisieren, was die Leistung im Innovationsprozess erhöht. Somit wird die Grundlage für einen durchgängigen, integrierten Innovationsprozess gelegt, der auch das frühe FEI miteinschließt.
Die Arbeit umfasst sechs Kapitel. Das erste Kapitel liefert mit dem Aufzeigen der Problemstellung die Einführung in die Thematik. Das zweite Kapitel zeigt, neben dem Gegenstand und Ziel eines Revenue-Management-Systems, dessen Struktur und Rahmenbedingungen auf. Die Vorgehenskonzepte eines Revenue-Management-Systems werden in eine Preis- und Kapazitätssteuerung aufgeteilt. Im dritten Kapitel steht die verallgemeinerte Validierung der Gültigkeit der Anwendungsvoraussetzungen eines Revenue-Management-Systems für die Automobilindustrie im Mittelpunkt. Im Anschluss werden Modelle zur Auftragsselektion beschrieben, die auf kapazitätsbasierten Revenue-Management-Konzepten fußen und auf das produzierende Gewerbe abgestellt sind. Anschließend erfolgt eine Bewertung dieser Modelle hinsichtlich der Eignung für den Einsatz in der Automobilbranche. Das vierte Kapitel entwickelt ein Vorgehenskonzept zur Anwendung in der Automobilindustrie zur simultanen Integration von Markt- und Produktionsbedürfnissen bei gleichzeitiger Deckungsbeitragoptimierung. Auf die Einbeziehung des Kundenwahlverhaltens wird dabei besondere Aufmerksamkeit gelegt. In Kapitel fünf der Arbeit werden zunächst Szenarien eines künftigen Strukturwandels der Automobildistribution aufgezeigt. Sowohl Wandlungsauslöser als auch mögliche Wandlungsintensitäten werden erörtert. Dabei wird deutlich, in wie weit ein Revenue-Management-System helfen kann, den herannahenden Herausforderungen der Neugestaltung zu begegnen. Auf Grund veränderter rechtlicher und technologischer Rahmenbedingungen erscheinen insbesondere Szenarien zum prognostizierten Online-Neuwagendirektvertrieb wahrscheinlich, weshalb sowohl die Anwendung als auch die Auswirkung eines Revenue-Management-Systems in der Automobilindustrie für einen Online-Neuwagendirektvertrieb untersucht werden. Das Aufzeigen erforderlicher Entwicklungen zum erfolgreichen Einsatz eines Revenue-Management-Systems schließt das Kapitel ab. Das sechste Kapitel enthält eine Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit und zeigt den weiteren Forschungsbedarf auf.
Hoher Wettbewerbsdruck in Verbindung mit der Heterogenität der Kundenwünsche lassen vermuten, dass zukünftig mit einer verstärkten Fokussierung auf Einzelfertigung gerechnet werden kann. Die Relevanz dieser Fertigungsart in verschiedenen Branchen nimmt zu. Deshalb ist es erforderlich, dass die Einzelfertiger ihre Wettbewerbsfähigkeit, neben einer Technologiefokussierung, zusätzlich durch eine erhöhte Prozesseffizienz steigern. Es gilt die bestehenden Wertschöpfungsstrukturen zu hinterfragen und Ansätze zu verfolgen, die zu einer radikalen Produktivitätsverbesserung beitragen könnten. Ein denkbarer Lösungsansatz ist das Lean Production Konzept.
Comparative STM-based study of thermal evolution of Co and Ni germanide nanostructures on Ge(001)
(2015)
Since 1947, when Bardeen and Brattain initiated the era of microelectronics by constructing the first Germanium (Ge) transistor, semiconductors have become the main material platform for advanced integrated circuit (IC) technologies. Later on, given in particular the electrical stability of its native oxide, IC technology shifted from Ge to Silicon (Si) substrates and the dominance of Si-based complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) microelectronics is today unquestionable. However, as the semiconductor industry is approaching the limits of traditional Si CMOS scaling, the integration of new materials into Si micro- and nano-electronics is required to extend the performance and functionality of future CMOS-based IC technologies.
Recently, Ge due to its superior optoelectronic properties and compatibility with conventional Si CMOS technology has re-emerged as an alternative semiconductor material on the mainstream Si technology platform. Many of the Ge integration challenges, such as e.g. doping, epitaxial quality etc., have been recently solved or minimized to an acceptable level. However, the fabrication of low resistance, thermally stable metal/Ge contacts is still one of the main barriers towards the full use of the potential offered by Ge. In particular, the formation of ohmic contacts is relevant for applications where high current densities are of importance (i.p. Ge p-MOSFET and Ge laser applications). Consequently, intensive investigations of metal/Ge contacts are imperative for future applications of Ge.
Various metal/Ge contact systems were studied and demonstrated good thermal stability and promising electrical properties. However, given their widespread use in Si CMOS technologies in form of their respective silicides, Co- and Ni-germanides seem to be an obvious choice for electrical contacts in Ge-based devices. Both metal/Ge systems exhibit a complex bulk phase diagrams with a wide range of different physical properties. It is generally acknowledged that the stoichiometric CoGe2 and NiGe phases are best suited for ohmic metal contact formation, mainly due to their low resistivity. It is worth noting that the bulk phase diagram is limited in its use for nanoscience due to an increased surface/volume ratio as well as by the strong nanostructure/substrate interface influence.
This PhD thesis sheds light on the formation process at the atomic level of Co and Ni germanide nanostructures on clean, reconstructed Ge(001) substrates. The main part of the presented research is based on in-situ scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) studies on the influence of subsequent, post-evaporation annealings at various temperatures in order to follow and investigate on the nano-scale the structural evolution of a few monolayers of Co and Ni metal (deposited at RT and in UHV conditions) on an atomically clean, reconstructed Ge(001) surface. Furthermore, additional techniques like LEED, (S)TEM-EDX and XPS were used to corroborate and complement the STM derived insights.
It was demonstrated that - for both investigated systems - room temperature deposition of a few metal monolayers on clean Ge(001) results in a Volmer Weber growth mode. Starting with annealing treatments at relatively low temperature ranges, the formation of a continuous MetalxGey wetting layer from as-deposited 3D metal clusters on Ge(001) was detected. It should be noted that a very flat wetting layer was observed for the Co/Ge(001) system, which is different for the Ni/Ge(001) system where inhomogeneous terraced domains were formed. Finally, the 2D wetting layer gradually evolves with increasing temperature into well-ordered 3D MetalxGey nanostructures, surrounded by clean, reconstructed Ge(001). Analysis of these Co and Ni germanide nanostructures shows that the growth mechanism is different: in particular the Ni/Ge system is more reactive by means of Ni bulk diffusion and results in 3D Ni germanide nanostructures which show a strong tendency to be embedded into the Ge(001) substrate. In contrast, Co germanide nanostructures are situated initially on top of the Ge(001) substrate due to the fact that Ge diffusion dominates in the low temperature range. Only at higher annealing temperatures, Co diffusion into the bulk occurs and Co germanide nanostructures penetrate into the Ge substrate. For the Co- as well as Ni-Germanide system, the nanostructures undergo Ostwald ripening phenomena in the high temperature range. The present PhD thesis thus allows to understand on the nano-scale the main growth and reaction mechanisms of the Walser and Benè rule set up about 40 years ago to describe metal/semiconductor interface reaction on the macro-scale.