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This thesis deals with geomorphic processes associated with Small-Scale Opencast Mining (SSOM) in the Gatumba sector of the Western Highlands of Rwanda. In this area tin and tantalum mining was carried out for decades, and it has brought about increase in the wealth and standard of living of the people. Though a lot has been done and achieved in soil erosion research, and despite the enormous wealth coming from mining in Rwanda and Gatumba sector in particular, the negative environmental impacts resulting from mining activities were overlooked by miners and stakeholders and are scarcely addressed in the research yet. This trend was bound to last since there were no valid guidelines for assessing impacts and reclamation of mine sites for the operators in the sector. It was recently, in 2007, that restoration of mining areas has received great attention from the Rwanda Geology and Mine Authority.
The objective of the research was to assess and to increase the understanding of geomorphic impact produced by SSOM. In this regards, the following aspects which indicate the types and spatial distribution of geomorphic processes were measured: (i) investigate the landforms typical of SSOM, (ii) map the watershed morphometry of the study area, (iii) analyse the most relevant properties of soils in term of geomorphology, and (iv) to assess the soil loss potential in the study area.
Primary and secondary data were collected from Government agencies and personal observations. Desk study to review papers and relevant literatures, field observation and experiments, laboratory analyses, mapping and modelling using RUSLE were combined together to develop a practical and integrated methodological approach to effect and realize the objectives. The argument guiding this analytical approach is that physical processes produced by mining cannot be assessed through a single method. The first step mainly concentrated on defining mining sites suitable for assessing geomorphic processes. Within the two studied mines, namely Ruhanga and Gatare, different plots were identified based on the post-mining land uses, to investigate the level of soil and landscape degradation by comparing them with that of control sites located outside of mining influence. Modelling using RUSLE in GIS interface enabled to quantify soil loss potential within the mines and the watershed.
Results indicate that the direct processes associated with opencast mining commonly involve pitting and trenching. Indirect and less conspicuous processes emerge as a long-term consequence of mining. They include depletion of organic matter, compaction or loosening of soil particles in mine sites mostly reflected by low content in organic matter, low rating in soil stable aggregates, and often high soil bulk densities which are variably distributed within the mine sites. This could explain the restriction or lowering, or the rapid infiltration of water into the soil during field experiments, as a consequence probably of the sealing of soil pores or the formation of fissures around mine shafts, from which slides or slumps occur. In average, soil organic matter comprises between 1 and 2.5 % on control sites and ex-mine cultivated sites. organic matter content of soils on reclamation sites was in the same ranges with that of control and ex-mine cultivated sites, but could reach 4,8 % in topsoil of some sample locations. The ex-mine self-recovering sites present much lower organic matter content which doesn’t exceed 2 % in general. The soil aggregation rating of the area is from very low (8%) to low (≤13.5 %). In general, the bulk density ranges between 1.29 to 1.56 g cm-3, and locally can attain 1.76 g cm-3. As a consequence, the total porosity changes locally. Application of correlation and multiple regression models showed a strong influence of soil organic matter on the bulk density. Infiltration tests performed on different experimental sites showed differences of rates in water intake rates as in infiltration curves as well. Infiltration rates are variably distributed over the mines. They range from very slow (3.8 mmhr-1) to rapid (111.18 mm hr-1). Atterberg Limits analyses showed that soils of Gatumba Mining District do not possess extreme properties and they are suitable for engineering purposes. The liquid limit ranges between 51 % and 26 %, whereas the plastic limit is comprised between 22 % and 18 %. The highest plastic index (PI) determined was 29 % and the later soil had a plastic index of 6 %.
The average soil loss in the Gatumba watershed is 27.45 t ha-1 yr-1 with a standard deviation of 0.891. More than 65% of land are prone to high rates of soil loss (exceeding 10 t ha-1 yr-1), and an increasing soil erosion follows increasing slope and land use patterns. The maxima of soil erosion rates are found in Upper Kibilira, Kirombozi and Gisuma catchments respectively. Based on different scenarios applied to quantify soil erosion rates, we found that more the organic matter content from 0. 5%, 2% and >2%) is increased with better support practice (from contour, strip and terrace), more the soil erosion potentials are decreased linearly, in the order of 18.8 to 17.8 t ha-1 yr-1 from 2% to >2 % of organic matter content respectively.
To make SSOM more environmentally sustainable, there is a need of developing integrated practices and cross-cutting approaches that reduce the environmental impact of mining operations, and leave mine sites in an acceptable state for reuse by people or systems. Practices such as isolation of soil and earth material, stabilization of slopes and amendments of sites to be restored should be highly considered in the process of rehabilitation of affected sites.
Als eine Folge der Miniaturisierung aller integrierten elektrischen Bauteile wird der spezifische Widerstand der TaN/Ta Doppelsperrschichten ein zunehmend wichtiger Parameter für die Schaltgeschwindigkeit beim 32 nm Technologieknoten. In Rahmen dieser Arbeit wird die Optimierung der Abscheidung von TaN/Ta Stapeln durchgeführt, mit dem Ziel die Tantalnitridschichtdicke zu minimieren und das Tantal in der leitfähigeren alpha-Phase wachsen zu lassen. Im ersten Teil der Studie wurde in situ ARXPS verwendet, um das Wachstum von verschiedenen Tantalnitridschichten auf SiO2 und SiCOH in Abhängigkeit der Abscheidezeit, des Stickstoffflusses und der Abscheideleistung zu untersuchen. Im zweiten Teil wurde die kristalline Phase 20 nm dicken Tantal Schichten abgeschieden auf verschiedenen Tantalnitridschichten, die in der Wachstumsstudie vorgestellt worden sind, untersucht. Die wichtigsten Erkenntnisse sind das Auftreten von Tantalkarbid und Tantalsilizid als Zwischenschichtverbindungen bei der Abscheidung auf SiCOH und nur Tantalsilizid für die Abscheidung auf SiO2. Demzufolge wächst alpha-Tantal vorzugsweise auf Tantalkarbid und stickstoffreichen Zwischenschichten, während Silizid an der Schnittstelle das Wachstum von beta-Tantal fördert. Um die Ergebnisse zu überprüfen, wurden zwei weitere Modifikationen des Interfaces untersucht. So wurde eine kleinere Bias-Leistung für eine Abscheidung von Tantalnitrid auf SiO2 benutzt, um die Rolle des Tantalsilizids zu bestätigen. Außerdem wurde eine thermische Behandlung einer dünnen Tantalschicht auf SiCOH durchgeführt, um die Rolle des Tantalkarbids zu bestätigen. Schließlich ergab die Kontaktwiderstandsmessung in Viaketten auf strukturierten Wafern für vier ausgewählte Prozesse tendenziell den gleichen Verlauf wie die Schichtwiderstandsergebnisse der entsprechenden Barrierenaufbauten der Experimente auf blanken Testwafern.
Flexible Dünnschichtsolarzellen erfordern eine ebenfalls flexible Verkapselung, um das Absorbermaterial (z.B. Kupfer - Indium – 2 Selenide (CIS) vor der Eindiffusion von Feuchtigkeit und anderen Umwelteinflüssen zu schützen. Diffusionsbarrieren auf Tantal-Silizium Basis sind z. Z. bevorzugtes Material um die Kupferdiffusion in modernen Halbleiterbauelementen zu verhindern. In dieser Arbeit werden Tantal-Silizium-Stickstoff und Tantal-Silizium-Sauerstoff Schichten für die Verkapselung von zukünftigen flexiblen Dünnschichtsolarzellen untersucht und optimiert. CIS-Solarmodule wurden mit dünnen, auf Tantal basierten Barrieren beschichtet. Die Barrierewirkung der Verkapselung wurde untersucht, indem die Veränderungen des Wirkungsgrades dünnschichtverkapselter Module während eines 1000-stündigen beschleunigten Alterungstest bestimmt wurden. Eine wesentliche Verbesserung der Barrierewirkung gegen die Eindiffusion von Feuchtigkeit wurde mit einer reaktiv gesputterten Doppelschicht aus 250 nm Ta-Si-O und 15 nm Ta- Si-N erreicht. Dieses Doppelschichtsystem erreicht bei einer Dicke von 265 nm eine vergleichbare Schutzwirkung wie eine ca. 5 µm dicke Schicht aus SiO2.