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Within this work, the growth of out-of-plane Si and SixGe1-x and in-plane Ge nanowire have been investigated. For this purpose, nanowires have been grown ccording to the vapor-liquid-solid mechanism by means of molecular beam epitaxy with Au as metallic solvent on Si(111) and nano-structured Si(001)/SiO2 substrates. Each stage from surface preparation to final nanowire growth has been examined in order to determine relevant parameters which influence the nucleation process nanowire elongation. Particular attention has been given to describe the variation of Au droplet size distribution on Si(111) to evaluate the subsequent nanowire growth and to obtain optimal growth conditions for an site-selective nucleation on the nano-structured substrates.
Due to increased surface diffusion velocity with raising temperature, the droplet diameter distribution shifts from a positive skewed distribution with a high fraction of smaller droplets to a negative skewed distribution with a high fraction of larger droplets. The temperature dependency of the most probable droplet diameter and the number of Au droplets per area has been determined, which can be applied to predict the resulting nanowire diameters.
The out-of-plane Si and SixGe1-x on Si(111) predominantly grow along the surface normal, exhibiting the characteristic sawtooth-like sidewall faceting. During the nanowire formation, the Au surface diffusion velocity increased and causes an increase of the most frequently observed diameter. Furthermore, the total number of droplets/nanowires decreases by a constant factor due to an increase of the contact angle during Si/Ge deposition. The specific diameter range for an possible nanowire formation is reduced by the incorporation of Ge into SixGe1-x nanowires.
To obtain a regular and uniform nanowire growth, a nano-structured substrate consisting of Si(001) terminated pillars surrounded by a SiO2 matrix has been utilized. The initial growth of Ge nanowire starting from Si-Au droplets with SixGe1-x nucleation from ternary alloy is discussed from a thermodynamic point of view and a model based on the Si-Ge-Au ternary phase diagram has been developed to predict the SixGe1-x concentration gradient in the nanowire base. The fully relaxed in-plane Ge nanowires occur within one of the four distinct in-plane ⟨110⟩ directions and nanowires are mainly bounded by two 55° inclined {111} facets and a less pronounced planar (001) top facet.
High-resolution scanning X-ray diffraction microscopy reveals a slightly tilted growth of individual nanowires with respect to each other, causing an abrupt change in the orientation at junction points of interconnected nanowires.
The Lateral-Photovoltage-Scanning-Method (LPS) operates well for Si, Ge and Si_{1–x}–Ge_x for an analysis in defect regions below one part per million, where Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS) or X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) signals fall below its detection limit. Although LPS is well established since 1999, it is still poorly investigated. We used a computational simulation finite volume (FVM) approach, solving the van-Roosbroeck equations in three dimensions using a MUltifrontal Massively Parallel sparse direct Solver MUMPS. The signal transport is simulated by solving the Maxwell equations in two dimension for different sample geometries.
It could be shown that a typical LPS-measurement is distorted due to the samples geometry (except cuboid). This distortion can be simulated, understood and recalculated, as discussed for trapezoidal or cylindrical samples. Also using the signal generation simulation of this measurement technique it can be shown, that the measurement signal is convoluted depending on the inherent minority charge carrier life time reducing the local resolution. An investigation of the local resolution were made using a Gaussian function as the convolution function of this method. A comparison of simulations to real measurements was discussed on silicon samples with boron implantation pattern.
In 1955 Tauc already stated that the bulk photovoltaic effect, causative for the LPS measurement set-up, could be used detecting any quantity, which affects the band structure of a semiconductor.As strain is coupled to the conduction and valence band profiles by the deformation potential theory by van-de-Walle, we investigated the possibility to detect strain variations using LPS simulations. For an n-type Si sample with an on-top stressor stripe (silicon-nitride) the strain distribution in Si got calculated by finite elemente simulation (FEM) using solid mechanics module. By directly converting the strain profile to a single conduction and valence band, FVM LPS simulations were performed. It could be shown, that the LPS voltage can be connected to hole traps caused by the conduction and valence band profile. Therefore we can finally conclude, that the LPS measurement set-up is suitable measuring conduction and valence band variations caused by strain.
The subject of this thesis is the development and test of silicon strip detectors for the high luminosity upgrade of the tracking detector of the ATLAS experiment at the Large Hadron Collider. Special emphasis is devoted to the understanding of the impact of mechanical stress on the electrical properties and the particle detection performance of detector modules.
First simulations were done to estimate the maximum expected stress on a sensor when operated at -30 °C within the future silicon strip tracking detector ITk, at ATLAS. The maximum stress in a worst case scenario is expected to be 27 MPa. Tensile strength tests were done to estimate the maximum stress which can be applied to a silicon strip sensor. Silicon shards, with a thickness and dopand concentration corresponding to the ITk sensor specifications break at >23 MPa, wafers at >700 MPa and sensors at ~ 400 MPa. The huge variations lead to the assumption, that the tensile stregth, which is highly dependent on the quality of the crystal lattice, is due to different cutting technology. Wafers, irradiated with a fluence equivalent of a lifetime dose of an ITk sensor, show no stress dependency of the youngs modulus. The tensile strength of irradiated wafers is decreased by ~ 6,6 %. No damage on silicon sensors from mechanical stress is expected for sensor modules installed it the ITk.
The electrical properties of silicon strip sensors were studied for applied mechanical stress on ATLAS07 sensors up to 60 MPa. The specifications of the sensors are similar to the specification of strip sensors in the future silicon strip tracker barrel region of the ATLAS detector. The leakage current changes at 50 MPa by -1.7 %, the bias resistance by +0.8 % and the interstrip resistance by -25 %. The depletion voltage and the implant resistance are not affected by mechanical stress. Except for the interstrip resistance the results can be explained by piezoresistive effects.
Silicon strip modules were build and studied in particle test beams. These modules consists of an ATLAS07 or an ATLAS12 sensor and an analogue readout to study the influence of stress on the module performance. The sensor module noise is independent from the applied stress. An effect of stress on the signal strength was seen. The ATLAS07 sensor module signal strength was decreased and the ATLAS12 sensor module signal strength was increased with a slope of ~0,6 MPa^-1. The average cluster size of the ATLAS07 sensor module was increased by 0,25 % MPa^-1 and the average cluster size of the ATLAS12 sensor module was decreased by 0,06 % MPa^-1 with applied stress.
Um die technischen Limitierungen bezüglich der Geschwindigkeit und Verlustleistung aktueller Mikroprozessoren zu überwinden, sind neue Technologien notwendig. Eine Möglichkeit ist der Austausch klassischer metallischer Verbindungsleiter durch optische Übertragungswege. Als monolithisch integrierbare Lichtquellen kommen Germanium-basierte Leuchtdioden oder Laser auf Silizium-Substrat in Frage. Dafür ist eine intensive direkte Lumineszenz der Ge-Schicht nötig. Aus diesem Grund wurde der Einfluss von Donatorkonzentration, Verspannung, Quanten-Confinement und Versetzungsdichte auf die Lumineszenzintensität von Ge-Strukturen mittels Photo- und Elektrolumineszenz-Spektroskopie (PL bzw. EL) untersucht. Eine Antimon-Konzentration von 3e19/cm³ erhöhte die Intensität um das Vierfache im Vergleich zu einer intrinsischen Ge-Schicht. Eine zusätzliche Zugverspannung durch ein virtuelles Substrat aus GeSn erzielte nur eine geringfügige Intensitätssteigerung. Eine GeSn/Ge Multi-Quantum-Well (MQW) Struktur steigerte die Lumineszenz um den Faktor 16. Jedoch wurde durch transmissionselektronenmikroskopische Untersuchungen der Strukturen eine hohe Dichte von Durchstoßversetzungen (threading dislocations) im Bereich von 1e9/cm² gefunden. Diese bewirken eine Reduzierung der Lumineszenzintensität um zwei Größenordnungen, wie PL-Messungen an pseudomorph gewachsenen Ge/Si-MQW-Schichten zeigen. Eine Analyse der Strom-Spannungs-Kurven ergab einen weitaus weniger schädlichen Einfluss von Durchstoßversetzungen im Germanium als dies für Silizium der Fall ist. Im Hinblick auf eine Steigerung der direkten Ge-Lumineszenz sollten dotierte MQW-Strukturen und eine Reduzierung der Versetzungsdichte Anwendung finden.
The aim of this work is to study the optical properties of crystal defects in multicrystalline solar silicon and poly-/microcrystalline silicon thin films on glass substrate.
First a setup for photoluminescence imaging on multicrystalline silicon solar wafers was developed. This system is suitable for detecting band-to-band luminescence as well as defect-related luminescence at room temperature on large-scale wafers at different stages of their processing.
Spectroscopic photoluminescence investigations of multicrystalline silicon solar wafers indicated a new intense luminescence line at ≈ 0.91 eV at room temperature. The origin of this line is probably found in a specific grain boundary. Furthermore, luminescence in the region of 0.8 eV was investigated in detail, and it was found that probably oxygen is responsible for a peak at 0.77 eV at 80 K.
Electroluminescence investigations at room temperature at both materials exhibit extended defect structures such as grain boundaries. Furthermore, it can be concluded that electroluminescence imaging in reverse bias mode indicate on serious breakdown points in solar cells, which can lead to destruction of solar cells and modules. By comparing defect-related and reverse bias electroluminescence images, a difference in the spatial distribution of defects emitting D1 radiation and defects emitting light under reverse bias beyond -12 V is detectable.
In addition, there seems to be a correlation in the distribution of non-doping impurities and photoluminescence. Concerning this, vertical slabs of two silicon blocks were examined by means of Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and photoluminescence. A correlation of the distributions of interstitial oxygen and the band-to-band luminescence profiles could be found. Additionally, a correlation between D3/D4 luminescence profile and nitrogen distribution in the blocks was observed.
Finally, the growth process, particularly the transition from amorphous to microcrystalline silicon by PECVD, was studied by combined photoluminescence and Raman investigations. Formation of silicon nano-grains was detected by means of photoluminescence and Raman spectroscopy.
The aim of this work is to describe and explain the properties of defects in multicrystalline (mc) and thin-film solar silicon (Si). For this reason, investigations with scanning electron microscope methods were performed, namely cathodoluminescence (CL), electron beam induced current (EBIC), electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Additionally, photoluminescence (PL) and reverse-biased electro luminescence (ReBEL) measurements were also conducted. Through correlation of PL, ReBEL and EBIC, it was possible to localize breakdown sites at mc-Si solar cells. Problems that occurred during the thin-film EBIC investigations could be demonstrated and explained. For the first time cross sectional EBIC investigations could be performed on thin-film silicon tandem cells. At mc-Si, it was possible to observe the oxygen related P-line next to the common D1-line luminescence at 10 K clearly distinguishable from each other at once. Furthermore, a hitherto not comprehensively discussed intense luminescence line at 0.93 eV could be described in detail. Through correlation of PL, CL, EBIC, EBSD, and TEM measurements, the origin of the now named Di luminescence at 0.93 eV is postulated to be in connection with Frank partial dislocations, with two energetic levels inside the band gap, one at 112±9 meV below the conduction band and the other at 93±10 meV above the valence band. Finally, it was attempted to explain the behavior of twin boundaries at temperatures below 30 K, where these show an enhanced collection efficiency in comparison to the surrounding grains. An alteration of the local “freeze out” temperature, possibly by a local band gap narrowing, is suggested as a reason. Another conceivable explanation is a breakdown of the diode potential at the grains.
On the compliant behaviour of free-standing Si nanostructures on Si(001) for Ge nanoheteroepitaxy
(2012)
Due to its superior optoelectronic properties, Germanium (Ge) is attracting increasing interest to build up future photonic modules within Si chip baseline technology. Despite clear advantages of Ge integration in Si technology (identical diamond crystal structure with Si, complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) compatibility due to no contamination risks etc.), it faces also some true challenges limiting the optoelectronic performance. Among them, thermal and lattice mismatch result in too high defect levels (which act as non-radiative recombination centres). Parasitic diffusion and formation of SiGe alloys at elevated temperatures is also a common problem. In this respect, selective chemical vapor deposition Ge heteroepitaxy approaches for high quality Ge nanostructure growth with reasonable thermal budget must be developed for local Ge photonic module integration. A promising vision is offered by the compliant substrate effects within nanometer scale Ge/Si heteroepitaxial structures. Here, in contrast to the classical Ge deposition on bulk Si substrates, the thermal and lattice mismatch strain energy accumulated in the Ge epilayer is partially shifted to the free-standing Si nanostructure. This strain partitioning phenomenon is at the very heart of the nanoheteroepitaxy theory (NHE) and, if strain energy levels are correctly balanced, offers the vision to grow defect-free nanostructures of lattice mismatched semiconductors on Si. In case of the Ge/Si heterosystem with a lattice mismatch of 4.2%, the strain partitioning phenomenon is expected to be triggered when free-standing Si nanopillars with the width of 50 nm and below are used. In order to experimentally verify NHE with its compliant substrate effects, a set of free-standing Ge/Si nanostructures with diameter ranging from 150 to 50 nm were fabricated and investigated. The experimental verification of compliant substrate effects is challenging and requires sophisticated characterization techniques. The main limitation corresponds to a simultaneous detection of a) the strain partitioning phenomenon between Ge and Si and b) the absence of defects on the nano-scale. In this respect, synchrotron-based grazing incidence x-ray diffraction was applied to study the epitaxial relationship, defect and strain characteristics with high resolution and sensitivity in a non-destructive way. Raman spectroscopy supported by finite element method calculations were used to investigate the strain distribution within a single Ge/Si nanostructure. Special focus was devoted to transmission electron microscopy to determine the quality of the Ge epilayer. It was found, that although high quality Ge nanoclusters can be achieved by thermal annealing on Si pillars bigger than 50 nm in width, no proof of strain partitioning phenomenon was observed. In clear contradiction to the present NHE theory, no strain partitioning phenomenon was found even for ~50 nm wide Si pillars for which the compliant substrate effects are expected. The absence of the strain partitioning between Ge and Si is caused by the stress field exerted by the SiO2 growth mask on the Si nanopillar. In contrast to such nanostructures monolithically prepared from a Si(001) wafer, first results in this thesis clearly prove the strain partitioning phenomenon within Ge/Si nanostructures on Silicon–on–insulator substrate. Here, the compliant substrate effects were clearly observed for pillar widths even bigger than 50 nm. This experimental work demonstrates, that NHE with its compliant substrate effects, offers an interesting approach for high quality Ge nanostructures on Si, avoiding even the misfit dislocation network with its non-tolerable electrical activity in Ge nanodevices. However, the theory does not yet include important aspects of thin film growth on the nano-scale and must be further developed. It is the aim of this PhD thesis to provide this experimental basis for the Ge/Si heterosystem. Finally, it is noted that here developed growth approach is fully Si CMOS compatible and is not only relevant for Ge integration but also for other lattice mismatched alternative semiconductors (GaAs etc.) to enable higher performance / new functions in future Si microelectronics technologies.
Die stetig fortschreitende Miniaturisierung in der Halbleiterindustrie macht es notwendig, Oberflächenparameter mit Auflösung im Nanometerbereich zu messen und auch abzubilden. Von größtem Interesse sind hierbei das Oberflächenpotential und die Kapazität der oberflächennahen Bereiche, da diese Aussagen über die elektronische Struktur erlauben. Hierbei muss großes Augenmerk auf die Möglichkeit der zerstörungsfreien und präparationsarmen Messung gelegt werden, da jede Behandlung der zu untersuchenden Materialien deren Oberflächeneigenschaften ändert. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden auf der Atomkraftmikroskopie basierende Methoden sowohl experimentell als auch mit Hilfe von Simulationen auf ihre Anwendbarkeit für die Untersuchung von Halbleiteroberflächen evaluiert. Es stellt sich heraus, dass die kontaktfreien Methoden „Scanning Kelvin Probe Microscopy“ und „Scanning Capacitance Microscopy“ sehr gut geeignet sind, um die elektronische Struktur der Probenoberfläche qualitativ zu beurteilen. Allerdings muss für quantitative Aussagen ein recht großer rechentechnischer Aufwand betrieben werden.
Nanotopography development induced by photoelectrochemical in situ conditioning of silicon is followed using a combination of surface sensitive analysis techniques. In an etching study, vertical nanostructure analysis reveals a buried stressed layer within silicon, identified by Brewster-angle analysis (BAA). In conjunction with in system synchrotron radiation photoelectron spectroscopy (SRPES), a superior quality hydrogen terminated Si(111) surface could be prepared by obliteration of the intermediate stressed layer. Using a novel photoelectrochemical structure formation method, a variety of vertical nanotopographies has been generated and analyzed by in situ Brewster-angle reflectometry (BAR) and scanning probe microscopy (SPM). Shaping of the nanostructures became possible by real-time monitoring using BAR. Appearances range from aligned single nanoislands with improved aspect ratio to connected Si nano-networks. A model was developed to describe the nanostructure formation based on stress-induced selective oxidation. Increased local photo-oxidation is found to result in the formation of extended horizontal micro- and nanostructures with fractal properties. Within a defined light intensity range, the structures reveal the azimuthal symmetry of the investigated crystal planes (111), (100), (110) and (113). The observed features could be reproduced using a model that is based on the interplay of stress in silicon, oxidation by light generated excess holes and locally increased etching in fluoride containing solution.
This thesis addresses the electro-optical properties of silicon, containing dislocations. The interest in those properties is driven mainly by two practical reasons. One is the optical characterisation of multicrystalline silicon for solar cells, and the other is the design of light emitting diodes based on silicon by enhancement of silicon radiative properties via introduction of dislocations. The work demonstrates that dislocation specific radiation may provide a means for optical diagnostics of solar cell grade silicon. It provides insight into the mechanisms governing the dislocation recombination activity, their radiation, and how are they influenced by other defects present in silicon. We demonstrate that photoluminescence mapping is useful for monitoring the recombination activity in solar cell grade silicon and can be applied for identification of contaminants, based on their photoluminescence signatures. It is shown that the recombination at dislocations is strongly influenced by the presence of metals at the dislocation sites. The dislocation radiation activity correlates with their electrical activity. Thus, photoluminescence mapping at room temperature may provide a means for revealing and characterising of dislocation-rich regions in multicrystalline silicon. It is shown that the dislocation and band-to-band luminescence are essentially anti-correlated. The band-to-band intensity being related to the diffusion length of minority carriers can be used for measurements of diffusion length, as long as the surface recombination rate is controlled. Moreover, photoluminescence mapping can be used for the detection of optically active defects in solar grade materials. Thus, betaFeSi2 precipitates, with a luminescence at 0.8 eV, were detected within the grains of block cast materials. They exhibit a characteristic feature of quantum dots, namely blinking. The second aspect of the thesis concerns the topic of silicon based light emitters for on-chip optical interconnects. The goal is an enhancement of sub-band-gap or band-to-band radiation by controlled formation of dislocation-rich areas in microelectronics-grade silicon as well as understanding of the processes governing such enhancement. For light emitters based on band-to-band emission it is shown, that internal quantum efficiency of nearly 2 % can be achieved, but the emission is essentially generated in the bulk of the wafer. On the other hand, light emitters utilizing the emission from dislocation-rich areas of a well localized wafer depth were explored. Three different methods for reproducible formation of a dislocation-rich region beneath the wafer surface were investigated and evaluated in view of their room temperature sub-band-gap radiation: (1) silicon implantation and annealing, (2) epitaxially grown SiGe buffer, and (3) direct wafer bonding. The most promising dislocation-based emitter appears the utilization of a dislocation network produced by wafer bonding. It is shown, that monochromatic D1 radiation (wavelength 1.5 µm) can be generated in a well localised depth of the wafer. The radiation is not absorbed in silicon and such localized emitter can, potentially, be coupled with silicon waveguides and Ge-based detectors for optical interconnects.