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Additive Manufacturing of metals has become relevant for industrial applications. The near net-shape production of components produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion (PBF-LB/M) enables new possibilities in component design combined with a reduction of the amount of needed material. Omitting the extra material, that was part of conventionally produced components due to machining constraints, results in components which in consequence lack the inherent additional safety margins provided by the higher material consumption of conventionally produced components. Therefore, to use PBF-LB/M metals in safety critical applications an in-depth understanding of porosity and internal stresses in parts made by PBF-LB/M is needed. Only non-destructive testing methods—such as computed tomography and residual stress analysis using neutrons—enable the assessment of porosity and stresses in the whole part. In this thesis I tackled creep and tensile static deformed specimens to fill research gaps in this field in terms of analysing PBF-LB/M stainless steel AISI 316L: from structural properties to in-situ behaviour. The initial void population of AISI 316L is studied using X-ray and synchrotron micro computed tomography. Specimens produced with different process parameters were analysed to quantify the influence of process parameters on the initial void population. The possibility to close voids using the laser illumination of subsequent layers is discussed by a quantitative study of the ability of the laser to melt different multiples of the applied layer thickness. The formation of internal stress is inherent to components produced by the PBFLB/ M process. These stresses remain in the components after production as residual stresses. In this thesis a study is presented which aims to unravel the mechanisms that define the spatial distribution of the residual stresses, and their magnitude. In the end, the population of internal voids during mechanical testing is studied by X-ray micro computed tomography. The evolution of damage accumulation in creep specimens is studied at different stages of the creep test. Results are compared to a creep tested conventionally made specimen and to a PBF-LB/M specimen from a tensile test. An interconnection between the PBF-LB/M microstructure and the pattern of damage is revealed.
The geometric accuracy of an incrementally formed part is dependent on the underlying deformation mechanism and the residual stresses induced in the material during forming. This thesis presents new insights into the deformation mechanism and residual stresses of the Single Point Incremental Forming (SPIF) variant of the ISF process. In addition, strategies to control, suppress and adjust the deformation mechanism and residual stresses to increase the geometric accuracy and improve part properties are presented.
The deformation mechanism of the ISF process is investigated. A novel methodology is developed to split the plastic energy dissipation during the SPIF process as a contributions of energies from dominant deformation modes. It is found that the dominant deformation mode can be bending, shear or membrane stretching, depending on the selected values of the process parameters. By controlling the contribution of each deformation mechanism, the outcome of the SPIF process can be designed for maximum geometric accuracy within the constraints of process time and formability.
The build-up of the residual stresses in the SPIF process is investigated and a relation between the geometric accuracy and the residual stresses under changing process parameters is developed. The wall angle parameter has the highest influence on residual stresses. Moreover, the intensity and the magnitude of the residual stresses can be controlled by adjusting the process parameters.
A direct approach based on post-forming Stress Relief Annealing (SRA) is developed to suppress residual stresses and increase geometric accuracy. In this regard, a modular tooling set-up is designed to perform the SRA under partial constraint. For maximum efficiency, optimal SRA parameters are determined. Two parts with practical significance are incrementally formed and subsequently stress relief annealed. A considerable increase in the geometric accuracy is observed with SRA in comparison to the parts without SRA.
In the last part of this thesis, the very first approach is presented to generate a target distribution of high magnitude residual stresses in the ISF process for improving the mechanical properties. The desired residual stresses are generated in the conventionally formed disc springs in the surface treatment approach. In an integrated forming approach, the forming of the disc springs and the desired residual stresses are generated in a single step. Mechanical properties of the disc springs are better for both approaches in comparison to conventional disc springs. Hence, a targeted generation and distribution of the residual stresses to improve the mechanical properties is possible.
Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Analyse der Dauerfestigkeit von Schweißverbindungen nach erfolgter Reparatur des vorhandenen Ermüdungsrisses. In den aktuellen Regelwerken (wie Eurocode bzw. International Institute of Welding) liegen bis heute keine normativen Bemessungskonzepte für sanierte Schweißverbindungen vor. Diesbezüglich werden im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit die herkömmlichen Ermüdungsfestigkeitsnachweise (nach Nenn-, Struktur- und Kerbspannungskonzept) um die ermittelten FAT-Klassen für sanierte bzw. nachbehandelte Schweißverbindungen ergänzt.
Die Analyse betrachtet ein typisches kleinmaßstäbliches Bauteilelement des Stahlbaus, d.h. das Konstruktionsdetail der Quersteife. Dabei handelt es sich um nicht „belastungstragende“ Kehlnähte, die eine bevorzugte Ausgangsstelle für Ermüdungsrisse an Nahtübergängen darstellen und daher stark ermüdungsfestigkeitsmindernd wirken.
Die experimentellen Ermüdungsuntersuchungen in Form von klassischen Wöhlerversuchen verfügen über drei Gruppen von Versuchsprüfkörpern. Die Gruppe I bezieht sich auf fehlerfreie Schweißnähte, d.h. im Schweißzustand belassene Prüfkörper. Die Gruppe II betrifft die fehlerhaften Schweißnähte, die durch Ausschleifen der potenziellen Risse und Wiederschweißen saniert wurden. Bei der Gruppe III werden die Prüfkörper zusätzlich durch eine Schweißnahtnachbehandlungsmethode, d.h. mit höherfrequentem Hämmern bearbeitet. Neben den klassischen Ermüdungsversuchen werden die Kerbwirkungen in ermüdungskritischen Stellen mit Hilfe der Finite-Elemente-Methode analysiert. Somit können die FAT-Klassen nach Nenn-, Struktur- und Kerbspannungskonzept für Reparaturschweißungen ermittelt werden. Um die relevante Vergleichbarkeit der entsprechenden Schweißnahtzustände bzw. Effektivität solcher Reparaturmaßnahmen sicherzustellen wird zusätzlich eine ganze Serie von sog. Begleituntersuchungen durchgeführt. Dabei handelt es sich um Temperatur-, Verzugs- und Härtemessungen, röntgenografische Eigenspannungsbestimmungen sowie metallographische Untersuchungen zur Bestimmung der Schmelzbadgeometrie bzw. des Nahtprofils. Vor allem wird im Rahmen dieser Arbeit ein Fokus auf die Eigenspannungsanalyse gelegt, um die tatsächliche Eigenspannungsverteilung in den entsprechenden Reparaturzuständen zu ermitteln und somit eine Basis für verbesserte Bemessungsmodelle von sanierten und nachbehandelten Schweißnähten zu erarbeiten. Bei den Gruppen I und II der Versuchsprüfkörper betrifft die Eigenspannungsanalyse ebenso die Schweißsimulation.