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Um die technischen Limitierungen bezüglich der Geschwindigkeit und Verlustleistung aktueller Mikroprozessoren zu überwinden, sind neue Technologien notwendig. Eine Möglichkeit ist der Austausch klassischer metallischer Verbindungsleiter durch optische Übertragungswege. Als monolithisch integrierbare Lichtquellen kommen Germanium-basierte Leuchtdioden oder Laser auf Silizium-Substrat in Frage. Dafür ist eine intensive direkte Lumineszenz der Ge-Schicht nötig. Aus diesem Grund wurde der Einfluss von Donatorkonzentration, Verspannung, Quanten-Confinement und Versetzungsdichte auf die Lumineszenzintensität von Ge-Strukturen mittels Photo- und Elektrolumineszenz-Spektroskopie (PL bzw. EL) untersucht. Eine Antimon-Konzentration von 3e19/cm³ erhöhte die Intensität um das Vierfache im Vergleich zu einer intrinsischen Ge-Schicht. Eine zusätzliche Zugverspannung durch ein virtuelles Substrat aus GeSn erzielte nur eine geringfügige Intensitätssteigerung. Eine GeSn/Ge Multi-Quantum-Well (MQW) Struktur steigerte die Lumineszenz um den Faktor 16. Jedoch wurde durch transmissionselektronenmikroskopische Untersuchungen der Strukturen eine hohe Dichte von Durchstoßversetzungen (threading dislocations) im Bereich von 1e9/cm² gefunden. Diese bewirken eine Reduzierung der Lumineszenzintensität um zwei Größenordnungen, wie PL-Messungen an pseudomorph gewachsenen Ge/Si-MQW-Schichten zeigen. Eine Analyse der Strom-Spannungs-Kurven ergab einen weitaus weniger schädlichen Einfluss von Durchstoßversetzungen im Germanium als dies für Silizium der Fall ist. Im Hinblick auf eine Steigerung der direkten Ge-Lumineszenz sollten dotierte MQW-Strukturen und eine Reduzierung der Versetzungsdichte Anwendung finden.
Luminosity is a key quantity of any collider, since it allows for the determination of the absolute cross sections from the observed rates in a detector. Since the Higgs boson discovery in 2012, the highest priority at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) has been given to an accurate understanding of the electroweak scale and a search for new physics. Precise luminosity measurements in such conditions are of crucial importance, as they determine the precision of any physics cross section measurement.
To increase the production of particles of low cross section the LHC is running at the highest possible luminosity. After the first Long Shutdown (LS1) the original performance goal for the luminosity of was reached with 1011 protons per bunch and a bunch spacing of 25 ns. In such conditions radiation hard detectors with extremely fast response time are required, especially for instrumentation near the beam.
The Compact Muon Solenoid experiment is equipped with three online luminometers, which fulfill the listed requirements: the Fast Beam Conditions Monitor (BCM1F), the Pixel Luminosity Telescope (PLT) and the Forward Hadron calorimeter (HF).
The BCM1F was upgraded during LS1 from 8 to 24 diamond sensors and is read out by a dedicated fast ASIC. The back-end comprises a deadtime-less histogramming unit, with 6.25 ns bin width and analog-to-digital converters with 2 ns sampling time in the VME standard. A microTCA system with better time resolution is in development. Because of its excellent time resolution BCM1F measures separately both luminosity and machine induced background particles.
The performance of the detector in the first running period and radiation damage monitoring of the sensors and electronics chain form the first part of this thesis.
Calibration of the luminometers at the LHC is done using van der Meer (VdM) scans. The proton beams are scanned against each other. The effective width of the beams is measured and the visible cross section, the key quantity for the luminosity measurement, is determined.
The impact of detector instability, beam-beam effects, correlations of the particle density distributions in the X and Y planes, and satellite and ghost bunches are studied in detail and systematic uncertainties are derived. A comparison of the VdM scans of 2015 and 2016 completes the second part of the thesis.
As a contribution to the upgrade of the beam instrumentation for the high luminosity LHC, a novel single crystal sapphire detector was designed, built and studied in a test-beam. The detector comprises a stack of sapphire plates. The response depends on the direction of the incident particles. The performance of the detector is described in the third part of the thesis. It is demonstrated that this sapphire detector can be used for the detection of single relativistic particles. The results point to the dominant contribution of the electrons to the signal generation in sapphire.
This thesis addresses the electro-optical properties of silicon, containing dislocations. The interest in those properties is driven mainly by two practical reasons. One is the optical characterisation of multicrystalline silicon for solar cells, and the other is the design of light emitting diodes based on silicon by enhancement of silicon radiative properties via introduction of dislocations. The work demonstrates that dislocation specific radiation may provide a means for optical diagnostics of solar cell grade silicon. It provides insight into the mechanisms governing the dislocation recombination activity, their radiation, and how are they influenced by other defects present in silicon. We demonstrate that photoluminescence mapping is useful for monitoring the recombination activity in solar cell grade silicon and can be applied for identification of contaminants, based on their photoluminescence signatures. It is shown that the recombination at dislocations is strongly influenced by the presence of metals at the dislocation sites. The dislocation radiation activity correlates with their electrical activity. Thus, photoluminescence mapping at room temperature may provide a means for revealing and characterising of dislocation-rich regions in multicrystalline silicon. It is shown that the dislocation and band-to-band luminescence are essentially anti-correlated. The band-to-band intensity being related to the diffusion length of minority carriers can be used for measurements of diffusion length, as long as the surface recombination rate is controlled. Moreover, photoluminescence mapping can be used for the detection of optically active defects in solar grade materials. Thus, betaFeSi2 precipitates, with a luminescence at 0.8 eV, were detected within the grains of block cast materials. They exhibit a characteristic feature of quantum dots, namely blinking. The second aspect of the thesis concerns the topic of silicon based light emitters for on-chip optical interconnects. The goal is an enhancement of sub-band-gap or band-to-band radiation by controlled formation of dislocation-rich areas in microelectronics-grade silicon as well as understanding of the processes governing such enhancement. For light emitters based on band-to-band emission it is shown, that internal quantum efficiency of nearly 2 % can be achieved, but the emission is essentially generated in the bulk of the wafer. On the other hand, light emitters utilizing the emission from dislocation-rich areas of a well localized wafer depth were explored. Three different methods for reproducible formation of a dislocation-rich region beneath the wafer surface were investigated and evaluated in view of their room temperature sub-band-gap radiation: (1) silicon implantation and annealing, (2) epitaxially grown SiGe buffer, and (3) direct wafer bonding. The most promising dislocation-based emitter appears the utilization of a dislocation network produced by wafer bonding. It is shown, that monochromatic D1 radiation (wavelength 1.5 µm) can be generated in a well localised depth of the wafer. The radiation is not absorbed in silicon and such localized emitter can, potentially, be coupled with silicon waveguides and Ge-based detectors for optical interconnects.