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Possible synergy between FLEGT-VPA & REDD+ towards improving forest governance framework in Cameroon
(2023)
Illegal logging is seen as a serious impediment to achieving sustainable management of forests in the tropics. In addition, deforestation contributes in increasing carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere, resulting to biodiversity loss and climate change. Illegal logging and deforestation have affected Cameroon’s forest ecosystem negatively since the mid-1980s as a result of the economic crises, which intensified the exploitation of forest resources for multiple purposes. In response, some policy initiatives came up such as FLEGT-VPA and REDD+ to fight against the threats. It is due to the above background that this study was designed to examine the possible synergy between FLEGT-VPA and REDD+ towards improving the forest governance framework in Cameroon. The first part of the study assesses FLEGT-VPA in Cameroon with the application of interviews of key informants who were involved in the negotiation process of the EU-Cameroon Voluntary Partnership Agreement. The second part of the study assesses the management of Bimbia Bonadikombo Community Forest (BBCF), as one of the REDD+ pilot project sites around Mount Cameroon in the South West Region of Cameroon. The use of surveys, content analysis, and observations seeks to assess these two initiatives in their role in improving forest governance in Cameroon. The first part of the research reveals that since Cameroon ratified the FLEGT-VPA in 2011, there has been progressed concerning stakeholder participation in forest-related issues. Again, the study also reveals challenges faced with the setting up of a system to verify timber from legal origin as recommended by the European Union. The research further reveals a lack of commitment by the government in revising the current forest policies and re-organizing the domestic market for timber trade as part of the commitment made by the government during the ratification of the FLEGT-VPA. The second part of the study finds that the management of BBCF is not governed by the provision of the Cameroon community forestry manual or by its bylaws posing doubts if community forestry can halt emissions of greenhouse gases caused by deforestation, thus helping REDD+ achieve its objectives. The study recommends the need for rapid policy reform and a cross-sectoral transformation to enable FLEGT-VPA and REDD+ to synergize for a better policy outcome on issues concerning forestry and climate change.
Cameroon’s forest is one of the richest ecosystems in the Congo Basin and in Africa as a whole in terms of its biodiversity. These forest types are currently subjected to multiple categories of threats. By enacting a new forestry law in 1994, the government of Cameroon intended to intensify efforts toward the protection and conservation of this rich biodiversity. This study aimed to compare two forest management systems, a state management system (the case of Takamanda National Park) and a community-based management system (the case of Bimbia- Bonadikombo Community Forest), to determine which management system better conserves and protects the forest against biodiversity loss. The study applied a methodological framework that made use of selected indicators and criteria to evaluate the extent of sustainability of the two forest management systems and challenges faced in implementing them. Both quantitative and qualitative results were realized through the administration of questionnaires, semi-structure interview and in-depth contents analysis of Law No.94-1 of 20th January 1994 that lays down forestry, wildlife and fisheries regulations and the 1996 Environmental Management Law that directs Cameroon’s compliance to the international standard of protecting the environment.Results indicated that community-based system of forest management is a much more sustainable approach of forest management than a state management system. Based on the criterion of cultural values attributed to natural resources in the community-based management zone (Bimbia- Bonadikombo Community Forest), 78.2% of the local communities were more willing to protect biodiversity as opposed to 48.3% from state management zone (Takamanda National Park). This study found that the level of participation in the community-based management system was much more inclusive and transparent. On the other hand, in the state management system, a high level of corruption, lack of transparency, delayed and irregular salaries of forest guards and minimal participation of local communities in forest management decision-making was noted and likely responsible for the ineffectiveness and unsustainable management efforts in this system. The study recommends the adoption and implementation of a more inclusive, transparent and accountable management in the state managed system (Takamada national park), particularly the full involvement of respected Elites, Chiefs and Traditional Councils.
Large mammals constitute an integral part of biological resources, and hence fundamental elements in many ecosystems. In view of the roles played by habitats and humans in structuring large mammal populations, research was conducted in the Deng Deng National Park, with the aim to identify and characterize the spatial and temporal patterns of habitats, determine the relationship between habitat heterogeneity and mammal abundance and also to investigate the types and extent of human pressure on various large mammal species in the park.
Distance sampling technique and kilometric index analyses approaches were applied to determine species presence, frequency and abundance, with dung, nests, and tracks used as proxy for species presence. Using a spatio-temporal analysis approach in Geographic Information System, species distribution was analyzed. Small and medium sized duikers, red river hog and gorilla were most frequently encountered. Important is the record of elephant for the first time in the park, emphasizing the importance of the park for large mammal conservation.
Diverse land cover types that constitute habitats for flora and fauna were distinguished and characterized as dense forest, mature secondary forest, young secondary forest, tree and grassland savanna, settlement and degraded areas, and water bodies. Area, mean patch size, shape, density and richness metrics of these land cover types varied, emphasizing the heterogeneity of the park landscape. No significant differences (0.2 ≤ p ≥ 0.8) were observed in species abundance due to diverse habitat characteristics in the park. Species exhibited generalist habits with preference mostly for the dense and mature secondary forest habitat types. Temporal pattern over a 23 years’ time lag projected a 6.19 % increase in dense forest cover, suggesting future shelter opportunities for large mammals in the park.
The park is experiencing threats that are changing the physical environment in simple and reversible manner but also threats that have changed the parks environment in permanent ways; all from impacts of adjacent human settlements and development activities. Generally, species abundance was significantly high (p = 0.03) in habitats where threats encounter rates were low, and low in habitats affected by high human activity; a clear indication that these activities have eventually created depressing effects on the habitats of large mammal species in the park.
Actions aimed to limit human activities around the park, and aiming to sustain the large mammals and their habitats, especially within the hotspots identified in this study, are therefore proposed to ensure a more sustainable future for large mammals in the Deng Deng National Park.
Forest resources provide a means of livelihoods in rural communities in most developing countries. Growing threats of disappearance of these resources as a result of human and natural activities led Cameroon in 1994 to institute new forest policy reforms which amongst others aimed to formalize and strengthen the involvement of local communities in forest management. Although much has been written on the importance and methods of participation of the local people in sustainable forest management, little has been done to assess the involvement of especially women in forest management activities. This study aims to contribute to an understanding of the roles of indigenous men and women in forest management activities, how they are shaped by management regimes and the influence on their livelihoods.
Results are based on empirical findings from two case studies-the Korup National Park Area (KNPA) and Bechati Forest Area (BFA). The analysis focuses on the different roles of men and women in forest activities, exploring how policies have influenced their participation. It further uses the concepts provided by gender analysis and SLF to check the potentials for improved participation of men and women in forest management and sustainable rural livelihoods.
Results show that men and women in the research communities are solely dependent on forest resources for their livelihoods. They perform different roles with different interests and needs regarding the forest and its resources. Men and women have different responsibilities in protecting and maintaining homestead, common and forest lands. The results show that men are interested in cash crop production and usually own large plots and a greater proportion of women are involved in food crop production mostly for subsistence.
The analysis of the management practices in both research areas show that formal and traditional ways of managing the forest are practiced. The traditional method is supplementary to the formal as the inability of traditional council to solve some forest problems are forwarded to the court of law where sanctions are taken. Considering that they are few guards to patrol the forest or visit the communities regularly would mean increase illegal activities in the forest. With some recognition, cooperation and mutual understanding between the local people, government and conservation staff, the management of the forest would be improved. The analysis further reveals clashing traditional, governmental and participatory management strategies leading to tensions, conflicts and lack of trust among actors.
Results on gender analysis in research communities portray power relations in forest issues. Rights and access to natural resources like land, trees and animals is gendered. Land tenure rights BFA are hereditary and entitled to the male successor of the family. In KNPA, it is based on demarcation and occupation. However, though land acquisition is open to both men and women in the KNPA, women were found to acquire less land due to numerous responsibilities and lack of strength. The amount of land acquired determines the degree of authority a family or an individual possesses. The analysis also shows that there is some form of change in gender roles although women are not highly represented and even fewer women take part in decision-making processes.
Gender issues are integrated in most policy commitments in Cameroon but if steps are not taken to translate them into practice, the increase participation of women in forest management will remain limited. True change can be achieved if decision-makers ensure an inclusive implementation of gender issues at all levels of project planning. A change in traditional attitudes on the roles of men and women should be adopted and a rethinking on policies (e.g. land tenure and property rights) is necessary to pave the way for greater female participation.
Water scarcity is a global phenomenon which affects close to 2.8 billion people worldwide especially in developing countries. Buea (Cameroon) is blessed with abundant water resources but paradoxically the inhabitants of this region are facing a serious water crisis. The increase in population and rapid urbanization exert tremendous pressure on the water resources of this community. Also, the capacity of the main water supply authority CAMWATER (Cameroon Water Utilities Corporation) is insufficient to cater for the 90000 inhabitants. This thesis explores the potential of domestic rainwater harvesting (rooftop rainwater harvesting) as the best alternative to fulfill the water demand of the population. It also promotes artificial groundwater recharge as the best way to sustainably deal with excess rainwater to decrease surface runoff and avoid flooding especially in the high altitude villages on the eastern slopes of Mount Cameroon during the rainy season. Furthermore, it examines the willingness of the community to accept this innovative alternative which will solve their water supply problems. In an effort to combat water scarcity and decrease poverty in this region, this research analyses the possibility of domestic rainwater harvesting as a worthwhile alternative to augment the present conventional water supply systems to stabilize the water demand and create avenues for economic development. Buea has high rainfall (4000mm/year); harvesting the rainwater during the rainy season, storing it for usage in the dry season and using the excess to recharge groundwater aquifers will definitely ameliorate the status quo. To realize these objectives, a series of double ring infiltration tests were carried out in 9 different locations. The aim of these tests was to measure infiltration rates and therefore locate areas of good artificial groundwater recharge potential. Also, 220 questionnaires were distributed in 10 villages within the municipality in an effort to characterize the water consumption pattern of the population. The study confirms that the Buea water crisis is mainly as a result of poor water management and not due to physical or economic water scarcity. It reveals that about 86% of the population experience water shortages and CAMWATER has to double up its present capacity in order to meet up with demand. Over 80% of the population is willing to consider rainwater harvesting as a good alternative to augment their domestic water supply if government provides subventions to cover half of the installation costs. Conclusively, domestic rainwater harvesting if carried out extensively will rescue the Buea population from a disastrous water deficiency leading to detrimental environmental problems.
Modern law and local tradition in forest heritage conservation in Cameroon : the case of Korup
(2012)
Cameroon’s forests are exceptionally rich in biodiversity but are among the most threatened forests in the Congo Basin. To safeguard the country’s forest heritage, the government resorted to the creation of protected areas such as the Korup National Park (KNP) but ignored the local traditional system of natural resource management and relied merely on modern law for its protection. But the protection of the park only through modern law has not yielded satisfactory results since it still faces numerous problems which exacerbate biodiversity loss. With many problems facing the park, there is growing concern with regards to government strategy to maintain its values and integrity merely through modern law. This dissertation aims at assessing the potentials of modern law and local traditional system of natural resource management as instruments for effective protection of the KNP in particular and other Cameroonian national parks in general. It further aims at exploring ways of adapting national law and policy to suit local reality. To realise the objectives of this study, legal science analytical method, instruments of both quantitative approach (questionnaire) and qualitative approach (semi-structured interviews) were used. An in-depth assessment of the degree of effectiveness of modern law application in Korup reveals that it is to a lesser extent effective and this impedes Cameroon’s adequate compliance with its biodiversity conservation obligations under international environmental agreements. The study finds that the park’s protection unit plays a commendable role in fighting against illegal activities but inadequate financial resources and logistics render the institution weak. Other institutions play a laudable role in enforcing the law but major weaknesses identified include bail abuses, leniency in punishing offenders and corruption. It was discovered that the Korup inhabitants are against resettlement and often reluctantly cooperate in enforcing modern law. The research reveals that cultural beliefs and traditional practices associated with totems, taboos and sacred forests exist in the Korup villages and contributed in protecting Korup forest heritage. It shows that the putting into practice of some aspects of the traditional cultural practices was often without conservation intention but paradoxically, this contributed to forest biodiversity conservation. The study finds that each village has customary laws and local bylaws which are binding on its inhabitants and contribute to rational use of forest resources. The chieftaincy, village council and the Ekpe society are revealed as traditional institutions that govern the Korup people and manage forest resources through the traditional system ignored by the state. The research shows that statutory law recognises only the chieftaincy institution but reduces traditional rulers to mere auxiliaries of the government thereby weakening traditional institutions that ought to contribute in protecting Korup forest heritage. It recommends that in addition to fighting corruption and building the capacity of law enforcement institutions, the government should adequately integrate traditional rulers and institutions into the modern governance structure. It should legally recognise the role of traditional authorities in safeguarding Korup forest heritage through the traditional system. The study concludes that a management and conservation strategy that involves the people of Korup through their traditional institutions and system of natural resource management, will lead to effective protection and sustainability of the KNP and thus, contribute in enhancing Cameroon’s compliance with biodiversity-related international environmental agreements.
An increase in waste production is inextricably linked to population increase and increasing civilization, and depending on the waste management approach, groundwater could be seriously affected. In Limbe, for example, waste disposal methods (sewage, littering, open dumping and burning) have led to the contamination of groundwater resources. This study aims at assessing the degree to which the Limbe waste sites conform to prescribed standards of waste site location, the extent to which the waste sites compromise or enhance groundwater protection. The study further investigates groundwater management around waste sites; investigating the factors responsible for groundwater contamination from waste sites; evaluating the extent to which past and present municipal solid waste management practices minimise or enhance groundwater contamination and suggesting possible methods (techniques) by which the existing situation can be improved. Seven groundwater samples were collected for laboratory (microbiological and physic-chemical) analyses in Cameroon and Germany. Field visits and observations made were supported by pictures and interviews. The method of waste disposal used in Limbe by LUC (until 2006) and HYSACAM (from 2006) already show negative effects on groundwater. Results of microbial analysis are higher than the standards of Cameroon, WHO and ISI 10500-91. Total Coliform showed values >1000CFU/100ml, E. coli showed up to 346CFU/100ml and others showed up to 159CFU/100ml. These excessively high values imply that water is highly contaminated biologically and so groundwater wells in Limbe are not good for human consumption. Physico-chemical analysis revealed, in most samples, values lower than the prescribed standards. However, NH4+ showed higher values in all samples (0.9mg/L-2.6mg/L). The high level of ammonium could be related to high production of sewage in households. L7 and L1 showed the lowest values, whereas, L6 showed the highest values in almost all microbial and physico-chemical parameters analysed. L6 was most contaminated with high values mostly exceeding the given limits. This dominant wetland area must be evacuated and water highly treated because it is very dangerous for human consumption. Vadose water in Limbe requires serious biological treatment and subsequent groundwater monitoring to minimise hazards. L7 and L1 have characteristics of Basalt and because of low level of contamination can be used as the base for comparison (that is natural water). Water must also be thoroughly treated for NH4 contamination. Waste disposal in Limbe is poorly practised and the site used must be changed. Improved waste management schemes like waste reduction, sorting and treatment are required before final disposal. Landfill construction with emphasis on barrier, leachate and gas collection systems will be most appropriate for waste disposal and in minimising leachate spill, and groundwater and other contamination. Geological and hydrogeological maps and investigations as well as recent climatic data are needed in order to choose an appropriate site for landfill construction. Most of all groundwater monitoring and sewage collection should be a very important consideration in the Limbe Municipality. Household dump sites must be thoroughly cleaned and the public sensitised on the importance of proper waste management to reduce groundwater contamination and its effects on man and the environment.
Cameroon has vast renewable energy resource potentials, with a hydropower potential of about 55,200MW, second only to the Democratic Republic of Congo in Africa. So far, its energy needs are met by 4.8% hydropower (which accounts for less than 5% of its total hydropower potential), 0% wind and 0% solar. Cameroons’ energy sector still goes through insufficient electrical energy production, especially during the heart of the dry season, which runs from December through March. Coincidentally, the wind and solar power potentials for Cameroon are at their peak during these months and could conveniently supplement for the shortfalls in generation during these periods. In this research, technical analysis were carried out to determine the wind and solar energy resource potentials for Cameroon using the RETScreen software tool provided by CANMET Canada. These analysis revealed that the northern regions of Cameroon had higher wind and solar resource potentials than any other location in Cameroon. A 2MW installed wind energy capacity would be capable of generating well over 1.5GWh electrical energy per year, while a 2KW installed solar energy capacity will be capable of generating well over 3MWh electrical energy per year. In the final sections, financial analysis were carried out to determine the economic viability of such projects and the possibility for self-financing. Emission analyses were also done based on the ability for such projects to offset greenhouse gas emissions and ensure sustainability in the energy sector. The analysis for Maroua revealed that 78.6tCO2/yr for wind and 0.1tCO2/yr for solar could be reduced by those installations. Finally, the legislations and legal frameworks governing the energy sector in Cameroon were dissected to determine possible weaknesses and constraints limiting the use, promotion and development of the full potential of Cameroon’s renewable energy resources.
The economic crises of the mid 1980s and 1990s due to a fall in economic productivity inflicted serious negative consequences on Cameroon’s forest ecosystems and forest resources which became the target of intense exploitation for multiple purposes. A forest policy reform at the behest of the World Bank was intended to regulate forest exploitation in a sustainable way. More than a decade since the inception of this policy, this study, through a three-tier methodological approach of survey, content analysis and observation, seeks to assess policy impacts per se, as well as the role of environmental communication in mitigating non-sustainable forest exploitation in Anglophone Cameroon. The study also investigates a valid and reliable option for the sustainable management of forest resources, by comparing and contrasting the two operational forest management paradigms. The outcome of the investigation reveals that both policy and environmental communication have a more positive impact in the community forest area than in the state-managed forest area, implying that the former is a better forest management option than the latter. However, forest sustainability is still at stake in both areas, due, generally, to bad forest governance such as corruption, minimal public participation, lack of transparency and accountability, as well as the ubiquitous presence of poverty, unemployment and inadequate public access to socio-economic development indicators. To this end, the study proffers some robust recommendations that if implemented will greatly enhance the badly needed forest sustainability.
Recycling and material recovery are gaining more grounds in applicability as viable options to sustainable solid waste management especially in Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) schemes. In this dissertation a critical analyzes is made of the MSWM problem in Cameroon and an assessment of the role Small- and Medium-Size Enterprises have been playing in the area of recycling and material recovery. The main research methods applied in this research include: fieldwork, administration of questionnaires, interview and literature review. Using two case study localities (Limbe and Buea municipalities), the various practices in MSWM are elaborated, the constraints and challenges faced by management discussed and proposals for either expanding/upgrading existing schemes to be more sustainable as well as strategies to initiate new systems presented. Innovations within collection systems such as the introduction of household bins and specialized collection of specific waste could be quite beneficial to existing schemes. Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) which constitute one of the fastest growing waste streams presents greater management challenges. Two case study localities (Buea and Kumba) are used to analyze the problem of WEEE in Cameroon. An overview of the handling of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) at end-of-life (EoL) in Cameroon is made with special focus on households and repair units. At household level, WEEE is disposed of alongside other waste arisings in the available disposal facilities for given household. Repair units represent a very vital connection between dysfunctional EEE and EoL forms as all users of EEE tend to bring these devices to these units for repairs. An inventory of the various EEE at repair units for these two localities shows that above 40% percent of such equipments are totally out of use. In Kumba, Classes 1 and 4 EEE (according to EU WEEE directive classification) dominate while class 3 is almost absent. In Buea, Class 3 and 4 are dominant. These results show that socio-cultural, economic and even climatic factors influence the choice of EEE that people in this area acquire. The intense level of repair activities and recovery of useful parts by repair units show that there exist adaptable options to handle WEEE in especially economically and environmentally beneficial ways. The recycling of aluminum for production of household utensils represents a very basic and adaptive industrial set-up, which can easily be operated and run at very cheap cost and with a little manpower. While this venture seems apparently successful in economic terms as an option to poverty alleviation through income generation, it is plagued by some problems which, if given due consideration will render it a prospective option for poverty alleviation (through small enterprise business development) and environmental sustainability (as an option to sustainable MSWM). In this dissertation, a model is thus presented, which can be utilized by stakeholders to improve on the sector. An assessment of efforts and constraints to implementing comprehensive recycling and recovery schemes in Cameroon was also carried out. Results show that there are existing practices on which comprehensive recycling and recovery can be built upon that would be beneficial to both councils and engaged schemes – mostly SMEs and NGOs. The challenges faced and likely to be faced and the way forward to implementing any broad scale recovery and recycling are presented. If municipal councils choose to operate existing MSWM schemes without significant changes, then collective collaboration will be highly required. Such collaboration will present benefits to both waste collection and disposal. On the other hand, if they wish to expand schemes or create new schemes, adaptive innovation would be highly recommended. Such adaptive innovation would have to incorporate local practices and approaches of MSWM as well as socio-economic considerations so as to ensure new or expanded schemes survive within local socio-economic context. A greater challenge in enhancing recycling and material recovery in particular and MSWM in general, in Cameroon is on the role the government takes on designing appropriate policies and legislative frameworks to cover such activities in economically and ecological beneficial ways. In the absence of these, SMEs, councils and NGOs (working in partnership with other specialized groups) concerned with activities related to recycling and material recovery may be left with the option of regulating activities within their sectors as such activities stand to alleviate poverty and also present ecological benefits.