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The LHC is the largest particle accelerator and storage ring in the world, used to investigate fundamentals of particle physics and to develop at the same time the technology of accelerators and detectors. Four main experiments (ATLAS, ALICE, CMS and LHCb) , located around the LHC ring, provide insight into the nature of particles and search for answers to as yet unexplained phenomena in the universe. Two proton or heavy ion beams circulate in the LHC and are brought into collision in the four experiments.
The physics potential of each experiment is determined by the luminosity, which is a ratio of the number of the events during a certain time period to the cross section of a physics process. A measurement of the luminosity is therefore essential to determine the cross section of interesting physics processes.
In addition, safe and high-quality data-taking requires stable beam conditions with almost no beam losses. Each experiment has its own detectors to measure beam losses, hereafter called machine induced background. One such detector is installed in CMS, BCM1F. Based on diamond sensors it was designed and built to measure both, the luminosity and the machine induced background. BCM1F ran smoothly during the first LHC running period from 2009-2012 and delivered valuable beam loss and luminosity information to the control rooms of CMS and LHC. At the end of 2012 the LHC was shut down to improve the performance by increasing the proton energy to 7TeV and decreasing the proton bunch spacing to 25ns. Due to the success of BCM1F an upgrade of its sensors and readout components was planned in order to fulfil the new requirements.
The upgrade of the sensors comprises a two pad instead of one pad metallization. 24 instead of the previous 8 single crystal diamond sensors were foreseen for the new BCM1F to enhance the robustness and redundancy. To instrument BCM1F, 59 sensors were electrically characterized by measuring the leakage current, signal stability and charge collection efficiency. Quality criteria were defined to select sensors for the final installation. An overview of these measurements including a summary of the results is given in this thesis. In addition, an upgraded amplifier was developed within the collaboration in 130nm CMOS technology. It has a peaking time of 7ns instead of the 22ns of the one previously installed. A BCM1F prototype comprising a two pad sensor and the upgraded amplifier was tested at the DESY-II accelerator in a 5GeV electron beam. Results of these test-beam measurements are presented in this thesis as well as simulations to interpret the measurements.
The installation of the upgraded BCM1F was completed in 2014. In 2015 BCM1F was commissioned and started to measure luminosity and machine induced background. At the end, the thesis will describe both types of measurements with the focus on machine induced background demonstrating the functionality of BCM1F.
Um eine höhere Sensitivität für seltene Physikereignisse zu erzielen, wird die Luminosität am LHC in der dritten Upgrade-Phase um den Faktor fünf gesteigert. Die damit verbundene Steigerung der Wechselwirkungsrate bedingt für den CMS-Spurdetektor strahlungshärtere Sensoren. Um das geeignetste Material zu finden, wurde die HPK-Kampagne gestartet. Ziel der Kampagne ist es, die auf dem Markt verfügbaren Siliziumsubstrate und Prozesstechnologien auf ihre Eignung zu überprüfen.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden aus der HPK-Kampagne die sogenannten MPix-Sensoren untersucht. Dafür wurde zunächst eine Probestation in Betrieb genommen und die Steuerungssoftware programmiert. Zusätzlich wurden neuartige Auswertungsmethoden entwickelt und eine Datenbank eingerichtet. Zur Untersuchung der Änderung der Sensoreigenschaften durch Bestrahlung wurden die MPix-Sensoren zunächst vor der Bestrahlung charakterisiert und die Ergebnisse anschließend mit den Ergebnissen nach Bestrahlung verglichen. Der Untersuchungsfokus lag auf dem Einfluss des Sensorsubstrats, der Produktionstechnologie und der Bias-Strukturen und der Strahlenhärte. Durch Bestrahlung degenerierten die Sensortypen unterschiedlich stark. Der Anstieg des Stromes durch Bestrahlung ist kleiner für Sensoren aus Magnetic-Czochralski-Silizium verglichen mit Sensoren aus Float-Zone-Silizium. Für Sensoren aus Float-Zone-Silizium ist der Stromanstieg schwächer für 200 µm dicke Sensoren verglichen mit 320 µm dicken Sensoren. Bias-Strukturen aus Polysilizium und Punch-Through-Struktur werden durch die Bestrahlung geschädigt. Bei Strukturen aus Polysilizium steigt der Widerstand durch Bestrahlung um etwa 50% und bei der Punch-Through-Struktur steigt die Punch-Through-Spannung um den Faktor zwei.
The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) currently in operation intends to explore particle physics on the TeV scale. The International Linear Collider (ILC) and the Compact Linear Collider (CLIC) are being designed to measure the properties of particles possibly discovered at the LHC with high precision. Very forward detector systems at these machines are needed for the precise measurement of the luminosity and to approach full polar angle coverage. In the current detector concepts for linear collider detectors two electromagnetic calorimeters, Beam Calorimeter (BeamCal) and Luminosity Calorimeter (LumiCal), are foreseen. Both calorimeters are designed as sandwich calorimeters with tungsten absorber layers instrumented with finely segmented sensors. Due to a large amount of beamstrahlung remnants hitting BeamCal at the innermost radii, the sensors must withstand up to 1 MGy radiation dose per year. In this thesis two types of sensor materials were investigated: single crystal chemical vapour deposition diamonds (scCVDD) and gallium arsenide doped by chromium (GaAs:Cr). The very forward calorimeters ensure coverage for high energy electrons, positrons and photons down to very low polar angles. Within this thesis, simulation studies are presented for different beam parameters of the ILC. A new sensor segmentation was proposed to achieve better reconstruction efficiency of single high-energy electrons, positrons and photons on top of the beamstrahlung background. Only for a few years ago polycrystalline diamond sensors have been used for beam diagnostics in high-energy physics experiments. The Compact Muon Solenoid experiment, CMS, at the LHC is instrumented with several detectors for the Beam Conditions and Radiation Monitoring. The Fast Beam Conditions Monitor (BCM1F) is part of these systems. Here for the first time single crystal diamond sensors have been used. Eight detectors, comprising each a single crystal sensor and front-end electronics, are positioned around the beam pipe on both sides of the interaction region. They monitor the beam halo to protect the inner CMS detectors from adverse beam conditions and ensure high quality data for CMS. In this thesis, BCM1F data is evaluated for intrinsic time resolution and performance under harsh radiation conditions. Furthermore, it is investigated if it can be used for a bunch by bunch on-line luminosity measurement. The second type of sensor, made of GaAs:Cr, was produced in Tomsk State University and tested as a candidate for the BeamCal for future ILC and CLIC detectors. Several GaAs:Cr sensors were characterized in the laboratory for leakage current and capacitances and used for test beam investigations. Two sensors were assembled with a fan-out, front-end and ADC ASICs to build a fully functional prototype of a sensor plane. Several test beam campaigns were done to measure the performance of the system.