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Institute
- FG Hybride Fertigung (14) (remove)
Additive technologies are now widely used for the production of complex precise parts and have high potential for the production of forming dies. In this work, hot-forming dies optimized for additive manufacturing were developed and produced with wire arc direct energy deposition (WA-DED) and laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) technologies. The concept of lightweight hot-forming dies with a 2D-lattice structure was developed, which reduced the weight of each die by 56%, from 14.2 kg to 6.1 kg, in production using L-PBF. Maraging/precipitation-hardened steel 17-4PH was used as an alternative to traditional hot-working steels with slightly lower mechanical properties and a much higher processability in the additive manufacturing process. The workability of the manufactured dies was confirmed by forging tests on an industrial screw press.
Additive Manufacturing of metals has become relevant for industrial applications. The near net-shape production of components produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion (PBF-LB/M) enables new possibilities in component design combined with a reduction of the amount of needed material. Omitting the extra material, that was part of conventionally produced components due to machining constraints, results in components which in consequence lack the inherent additional safety margins provided by the higher material consumption of conventionally produced components. Therefore, to use PBF-LB/M metals in safety critical applications an in-depth understanding of porosity and internal stresses in parts made by PBF-LB/M is needed. Only non-destructive testing methods—such as computed tomography and residual stress analysis using neutrons—enable the assessment of porosity and stresses in the whole part. In this thesis I tackled creep and tensile static deformed specimens to fill research gaps in this field in terms of analysing PBF-LB/M stainless steel AISI 316L: from structural properties to in-situ behaviour. The initial void population of AISI 316L is studied using X-ray and synchrotron micro computed tomography. Specimens produced with different process parameters were analysed to quantify the influence of process parameters on the initial void population. The possibility to close voids using the laser illumination of subsequent layers is discussed by a quantitative study of the ability of the laser to melt different multiples of the applied layer thickness. The formation of internal stress is inherent to components produced by the PBFLB/ M process. These stresses remain in the components after production as residual stresses. In this thesis a study is presented which aims to unravel the mechanisms that define the spatial distribution of the residual stresses, and their magnitude. In the end, the population of internal voids during mechanical testing is studied by X-ray micro computed tomography. The evolution of damage accumulation in creep specimens is studied at different stages of the creep test. Results are compared to a creep tested conventionally made specimen and to a PBF-LB/M specimen from a tensile test. An interconnection between the PBF-LB/M microstructure and the pattern of damage is revealed.
Effiziente Fertigungssysteme sind wichtiger denn je, um die steigenden Klimaauflagen und die damit verbundenen Anforderungen an die Ressourceneffizienz erfüllen zu können. Klassische Fertigungsverfahren haben dabei den Nachteil, dass diese entweder mit einem hohen Ressourcenverbrauch verbunden sind oder Produktvarianten nicht wirtschaftlich herstellen können. Zwar können additive Fertigungsverfahren wie Selective Laser Melting (SLM), Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) oder Laserpulverauftragschweißen (LPA) durch ihre hohe Flexibilität dieses Problem teilweise beheben, aber bei großvolumigen Bauteilen oder größeren Stückzahlen sind diese Verfahren mit langen Prozesszeiten verbunden und weisen damit eine geringe Produktivität auf.
Dahingegen können hybride Fertigungsverfahren bestehend aus einer Kombination aus einem werkzeuggebundenen Prozess (z. B. Schmieden) und einem werkzeuglosen Verfahren (z. B. Auftragschweißen) eine effiziente Lösung darstellen. Die Herausforderungen sind dabei, die Wechselwirkungen der Fertigungsverfahren zu untersuchen und die Teilprozesse aufeinander abzustimmen. Ziel war es, die negativen Auswirkungen einer Wärmeeinbringung und deren Effekte auf die Mikrostruktur sowie die daraus resultierende Härte und Festigkeit aufzuzeigen. Des Weiteren wurde die Prozessreihenfolge untersucht, mit der eine optimale Festigkeit erreicht werden kann.
Anhand von Beispielen wurden anschließend Richtlinien und Strategien für das Hybridverfahren abgeleitet. So konnte gezeigt werden, dass durch das Hybridverfahren der Werkstoffeinsatz mit bis zu 53,2 % gegenüber der reinen Zerspanung gesenkt werden kann. Die Prozesszeit liegt mit 4,4 bzw. 2,4 h deutlich unter der eines rein additiven Prozesses, was auf eine konkurrenzfähige Wirtschaftlichkeit hindeutet.
Among variants of AM technology, wire-arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process suitably produces bulky metal parts with a medium complexity. Although WAAM shows a great potential, this process has not been fully explored, and it is therefore a worthwhile subject to further investigate. This monograph engages with tool path planning for the WAAM process and existing problems in WAAM are subsequently addressed, as following:
The existing overlapping models yield an uneven surface due to the inner beads overlapping with two neighbor beads while the outers have only a one-sided overlap. New mathematical models are established to obtain optimal distances between adjacent weld beads and to make surfaces more even.
Lightweight structures have high strength as compared to their weight. Producing these structures by WAAM results in imperfections because of uneven weld beads - an inevitable phenomenon when starting a new track. A new tool path strategy to produce lightweight structures is developed using contour patterns, which transforms any arbitrary geometry into that of a continuous path. Unfortunately, voids are formed at junctions when using contour patterns. An adaptive correction using machine learning is then developed to overcome this defect.
Large overhangs and inclined features are out of reach of WAAM when operating in the x-y plane in Cartesian system. This limits the ability of the WAAM process. To overcome that, each overhang feature should be welded with a distinct direction. This approach is realized within the robot based WAAM process. Establishing the kinematics of the FANUC robot arm and the positioner helps compute the new coordinates, the angular displacements of the positioner, and the orientation of the torch. The proposed strategy is examined through the construction of an overhang part.
The capabilities of the multi-axis deposition are extended by constructing curved thin-walled structures. Irregular thickness layers are deposited by controlling the travel speed, resulting in a different deposition rate. The curved thin-walled structures can be properly fabricated by combining a multi-axis deposition with non-uniform thickness layers. Bonding quality as well as geometric accuracy are also to be investigated. To ensure geometric accuracy, a compensation strategy is developed. The performance of the proposed algorithm is validated on different geometries.
This monograph will conclude with a summary of this work’s main achievements and contributions as well as outlooks on future research.
Within the process chains of the semi-finished production, hot forming is used to eliminate pores and voids from the casting process under compressive stresses and to adjust the microstructure for further processing. In the case of caliber rolling process, tensile stresses occur at certain roll gap ratios which promote void formation (damage) on non-metallic inclusion. Decohesion of matrix and inclusion in void formation is determined by local flow stress. Since the process is carried out above recrystallization temperature, damage cannot only be controlled through stress state (stress triaxiality and Lode parameter) but also the softening processes like dynamic recovery (DRV) and recrystallization (DRX) which can relieve local stresses. Such processes can be used to delay or prevent the damage initiation and growth and hence the mechanical properties of components can be improved. In spite of this, the influence of DRX on damage development has not been quantified so far.
This study focuses on the understanding the interaction between softening processes and damage during hot forming and to derive a model for coupled microstructure and damage evolution. For precise damage modeling, in-depth damage characterization of the specimens deformed during hot tensile tests under different stress states and deformation conditions (temperature and strain rate) is conducted. The stress states are varied by designing the specimens with different notch radii. To model the influence of local stresses on damage, continuum-based damage modeling approach is adapted where a system of matrix-inclusion-interface is considered. The influence of different parameters such as DRX, stress state, temperature, strain rate, total strain, inclusion size and type (soft/hard) is analyzed.
Based on the damage quantification results, an extension to Gurson-Tvergaard-Needleman (GTN) damage model is devised where a new nucleation criterion couples the stress state and DRX to the void formation at inclusions. The extended GTN model is utilized to predict the internal damage during multi-step hot caliber rolling process and validated with experimentally observed damage at different locations of stress state and recrystallized volume fraction. Based on the model, a damage-controlled strategy is proposed by finding the solution of optimal control problem (OCP) to obtain an optimal variable deformation speed that can induce low damage as compared to constant speed while keeping the process time constant. To implement the damage-controlled strategy, an isothermal forming simulator is designed and manufactured that can replicate the real load paths during hot forming. It is suggested that damage can be controlled if material is allowed to recrystallize at low deformation speed without inducing damage and then, speed up the deformation after onset of recrystallization.
The geometric accuracy of an incrementally formed part is dependent on the underlying deformation mechanism and the residual stresses induced in the material during forming. This thesis presents new insights into the deformation mechanism and residual stresses of the Single Point Incremental Forming (SPIF) variant of the ISF process. In addition, strategies to control, suppress and adjust the deformation mechanism and residual stresses to increase the geometric accuracy and improve part properties are presented.
The deformation mechanism of the ISF process is investigated. A novel methodology is developed to split the plastic energy dissipation during the SPIF process as a contributions of energies from dominant deformation modes. It is found that the dominant deformation mode can be bending, shear or membrane stretching, depending on the selected values of the process parameters. By controlling the contribution of each deformation mechanism, the outcome of the SPIF process can be designed for maximum geometric accuracy within the constraints of process time and formability.
The build-up of the residual stresses in the SPIF process is investigated and a relation between the geometric accuracy and the residual stresses under changing process parameters is developed. The wall angle parameter has the highest influence on residual stresses. Moreover, the intensity and the magnitude of the residual stresses can be controlled by adjusting the process parameters.
A direct approach based on post-forming Stress Relief Annealing (SRA) is developed to suppress residual stresses and increase geometric accuracy. In this regard, a modular tooling set-up is designed to perform the SRA under partial constraint. For maximum efficiency, optimal SRA parameters are determined. Two parts with practical significance are incrementally formed and subsequently stress relief annealed. A considerable increase in the geometric accuracy is observed with SRA in comparison to the parts without SRA.
In the last part of this thesis, the very first approach is presented to generate a target distribution of high magnitude residual stresses in the ISF process for improving the mechanical properties. The desired residual stresses are generated in the conventionally formed disc springs in the surface treatment approach. In an integrated forming approach, the forming of the disc springs and the desired residual stresses are generated in a single step. Mechanical properties of the disc springs are better for both approaches in comparison to conventional disc springs. Hence, a targeted generation and distribution of the residual stresses to improve the mechanical properties is possible.
Unternehmen der Umformtechnik sehen sich vermehrt steigenden Anforderungen bei schwankenden Einflussfaktoren ausgesetzt. Für eine wirtschaftliche Fertigung sind Pressen erforderlich, die sich den steigenden Anforderungen und schwankenden Einflussfaktoren anpassen und mit möglichst hoher Produktivität, Qualität und Wirtschaftlichkeit eine breite Produktpalette fertigen können.
Unter diesen Voraussetzungen bietet sich der Einsatz von kraftgebundenen Servospindelpressen an. Diese ermöglichen frei programmierbare Stößelbewegungsprofile und stellen die Nennkraft über den gesamten Stößelhub zur Verfügung. Allerdings erfüllen die bekannten Servospindelpressen die Forderung nach wandlungsfähigen Pressen, welche an unterschiedliche Anforderungen angepasst werden, besonders die Änderung der Abfolge von Teilprozessen und der Austausch von Maschinenkomponenten, nur sehr eingeschränkt. Aus diesem Grund wird ein neuartiges wandelbares Pressensystem entwickelt. Dieses soll dem Anwender weitreichende Vorteile bringen: Die Nennkraft des Pressensystems wird auf mehrere, in Durchlaufrichtung der Teile frei positionierbare und miteinander koppelbare Pressenmodule mit eigenen Pressenantrieben und -stößeln aufgeteilt. Durch Servospindelantriebe werden prozessangepasste Stößelbewegungsprofile für einzelne Teilprozesse ermöglicht. Dies erlaubt eine wandelbare Anordnung von Teilprozessen, wodurch die Prozesskette skaliert werden kann. Unterstützt wird die Wandlungsfähigkeit des Pressensystems, indem es durch den Anwender erweitert werden kann und sich weitere Prozesse wie Schweißen, Löten oder Kleben integrieren lassen.
Ziel der Arbeit ist die Entwicklung des beschriebenen wandlungsfähigen Pressensystems mit Servospindelantrieb für die Komplettbearbeitung von kleinen Bauteilen. Grundlage bildet die Untersuchung des Standes der Pressentechnik und der Methoden der Produktentwicklung. Der Entwicklungsprozess wird in die Phasen Anforderungsfindung, Konzeptfindung und Entwurfsfindung gegliedert. Zur Überprüfung wird aus dem Entwurf ein Prototyp ausgearbeitet. Im Anschluss werden Maßnahmen zur Produktstrukturierung durchgeführt, aus denen die Weiterentwicklung des Entwurfes zu einer Typengruppe und einem Baukastensystem resultiert. Zum Abschluss wird das Pressensystem bewertet, sein Einsatzspektrum beschrieben und das Pressensystem innerhalb bestehender Pressen eingeordnet.
Development of creep resistant titanium aluminide alloys for the Metal Injection Moulding process
(2014)
Titanium aluminides show great technological potential due to their light weight and excellent creep resistance. Their utilisation thus offers a potential to decrease fuel consumption and simultaneously improve the performance of components subjected to stress at high temperatures. However, shaping of titanium aluminides is still a very challenging and costly task considering their brittleness and the sensitivity on chemical composition. Therefore powder metallurgy near-net shape manufacturing techniques are very attractive to decrease material waste and reduce overall processing costs.
This research work was focused on the preparation, characterisation and optimisation of creep resistant titanium aluminides for the Metal Injection Moulding (MIM) process. Considering the little information available regarding processing of titanium aluminides by MIM, this work had firstly the goal of assessing the creep behaviour of a reference titanium aluminide alloy. Secondly, alloy variations with compositions based on the reference material were designed with the objective of improving the creep resistance, especially concerning primary creep. The basic strengthening mechanisms applied involved the addition of slow diffusing elements and elements that cause precipitation of hard particles.
The specimens were prepared by using pre-alloyed powder and mixtures of a master alloy (pre-alloyed) and elemental powders. Consequently, a great deal of effort was spent in the characterisation of the sintering behaviour in order to achieve reliable test pieces. Even though both methods can deliver sound specimens, the pre-alloyed powder approach led to the best results in terms of residual porosity and microstructural homogeneity.
The mechanical testing results indicate that processing of titanium aluminides by MIM is feasible and acceptable creep properties can be achieved with the proper sintering parameters. Even though the ductility at room temperature was considerably limited due to the residual porosity and high amounts of impurities intrinsic to the MIM process, alloys developed within this study showed improved primary creep resistance in the high stress – high temperature regime. In particular alloy variations containing additions of Mo, Si and Gd led to a considerable improvement of the primary creep resistance in comparison to the reference material at 800°C – 350 MPa loading.
The main subject of this work was the investigation of sintering behavior, microstructure, mechanical properties and biocompatibility of metal injection moulded (MIM) Ti-Nb alloys for biomedical applications. Commercially pure titanium (CP-Ti) samples were also fabricated by MIM as a reference. The sintering behavior of MIM Ti-Nb alloys was studied at first, in order to roughly determine the sintering parameters in the following investigations. Dilatometry was applied to investigate the linear shrinkage of MIM Ti-Nb samples from room temperature to 1500 °C at a heating rate of 3 °C/min under argon atmosphere. Various sintering parameters and Nb contents were used to investigate their influences on microstructure and mechanical properties of MIM Ti-Nb alloys by means of density measurements, optical microscopy (OM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and mechanical testing. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and high energy X-ray diffraction (HEXRD) measurement were applied to investigate the nature and precipitation of the unexpected titanium carbide precipitates in MIM Ti-Nb alloys. Initial cell adhesion and cell proliferation assays of human umbilical cord perivascular cells (HUCPV) on MIM Ti-Nb alloys were performed for biocompatibility characterization. The results of this work show that MIM Ti-Nb and MIM CP-Ti samples have been successfully fabricated and the as-sintered samples show good shape retention without distortion compared to the green sample. The sintering process of MIM Ti-Nb alloys consists of three main steps – Ti-diffusion step, Ti-Nb-diffusion step and Matrix-diffusion step. With increasing sintering temperatures and time, MIM Ti-Nb alloys exhibit lower porosity and higher Young’s modulus. A higher Nb content in MIM Ti-Nb alloys leads to an increase of carbide area fraction and porosity. The three factors – Nb content, carbide area fraction and porosity – determine the mechanical properties of MIM Ti-Nb alloys. An increase of Nb content and amount of carbides as well as a lowered porosity lead to a higher tensile strength. A decrease of Young’s modulus can be expected with higher Nb content and porosity. A high amount of titanium carbides can result in very poor ductility, but annealing and quenching process can significantly improve the elongation by dissolving the carbides. MIM Ti-Nb alloys exhibit good biocompatibility, indicating their potential for implant applications.
Slicermesser sind kreisförmige Scheibenmesser zum Schneiden von Lebensmittelprodukten, insbesondere Wurst, Fleisch, Käse und dergleichen. Sie werden in Hochleistungsschneidemaschinen so genannten Slicern eingesetzt und mit hoher Drehzahl von 3450 bis 5600 min-1 angetrieben. Die hohen Drehzahlen und die auftretenden Schnittkräfte erfordern eine sehr stabile Ausführung des Slicermessers. Ausgehend davon, die Messer in aufwändigen spanenden Herstellungsverfahren gefertigt werden müssen und ein relativ hohes Gewicht von 5250 g aufweisen. Der Schlüssel zur Lösung dieser Herausforderungen hinsichtlich Stabilität, Steifigkeit, Gewichtseinsparung, Werkstoffeinsatz und Fertigungsaufwand könnte in der endkonturnahen Fertigung durch Blechumformung liegen. In dieser Arbeit wurde ein werkstoffeffizientes, aus Stahlblech herstellbares Slicermesser entwickelt. Die Umformtechnologie zur Herstellung des Slicermessers wurde realisiert. Die Funktionsfähigkeit und die technische Zuverlässigkeit der hergestellten Slicermesser wurden experimentell überprüft und mit dem herkömmlichen Slicermesser verglichen.