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- Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) (1)
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Die Anwendung thermoanalytischer Methoden für die Polymercharakterisierung hat aufgrund der makromolekularen Struktur von Polymere Vorteile. Es wurden zwei neue thermoanalyti-sche Verfahren entwickelt und deren Einsatz anhand von Anendungsbeispielen demons-triert, sowie mit etablierten, thermoanalytischen Methoden verglichen.
Für die thermische- und thermo-oxidative Zersetzungsgasanalytik wurde die Thermogravi-metrie (TGA) gekoppelt mit der Thermodesoptions-Gaschromatographie-Massenspektrometrie (TDS-GC-MS). Die Zersetzungsgase der TGA wurden dafür über ei-nen Festphasenadsorber geleitet, auf dem eine repräsentative Auswahl von polymerspezifi-schen Analyten adsorbiert wurde. Die thermische Extraktion der Analyten erfolgte in der TDS-GC-MS. Dies ermöglichte die Trennung der Analyten sowie die eindeutige Identifizie-rung mittels charakteristischer Massenfragmentmuster. Sie wurde als TED-GC-MS bezeichnet. Es stellte sich heraus, dass sie sich besonders für die Analyse von komplexen Kohlen-wasserstoffgemischen mit Molmassen von mehr als 100 g/mol eignet. In Kombination mit anderen Kopplungstechniken wie beispielsweise die TGA-FTIR/MS, die speziell für die Ana-lyse von kleineren Molekülen verwendet wurde, konnten neue grundlegende Zersetzungs-mechanismen entwickelt werden. Es wurde beispielsweise sichtbar, dass sowohl bei der thermischen als auch bei der thermo-oxidativen Degradation von Polyamid 66 (PA 66) Kon-densationsreaktionen eine wichtige Rolle spielen. Die Methode erwies sich darüber hinaus als besonders geeignet für die Identifizierung und Quantifizierung von Polymeren in Umweltproben. Es entstand dazu eine erste grundlegende Arbeit für die quantitative Bestimmung von Polyethylen (PE) Mikroplastik in Umweltproben.
Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde eine steuerbare beheizbare Zelle eingeführt. Mit ihr war es möglich, mit Hilfe der Nahinfrarotspektroskopie (NIR), sich verändernde Netzwerkstrukturen während der Härtung sichtbar zu machen. Vergleichend dazu wurden etablierte, kalorische Messungen durchgeführt. Somit konnten für verschiedene Epoxidsysteme die Aushärtegrade während der Härtung mit variablen Heizraten bestimmt werden. Dadurch konnten Aushär-tungskinetiken erstellt werden, die durch isotherme und komplexe Aushärtungsszenarien validiert wurden.
Low-alloyed heat-resistant steels have a fundamental contribution to the currently applied steel grades in pressurized and temperature loaded components like membrane walls(water walls)or pressure vessels. Here, the main advantages of the low-alloy concept can be used in terms of superior high temperature mechanical properties, workability and decreased amounts of expensive alloy elements. The main challenge for the future is to further increase the power plant thermal efficiency independent of the type of power plant concept, i.e. fossil-fired or nuclear power plant, where the material selection can directly affect reduction of CO2 emissions.
In power plant design, welding is the most applied manufacturing technique in component construction. The necessary weld heat input causes metallurgical changes and phase transitions in the heat affected zone (HAZ) of the base materials and in the deposited weld metal. The weld joint can absorb hydrogen during welding or in later service - This absorption can cause degradation of mechanical properties of the materials, and in certain loading conditions, hydrogen-assisted cold cracks can occur. This cracking phenomenon can appear time delayed due to the temperature dependency of the hydrogen diffusion and
the presence of a “critical” hydrogen concentration. Additionally, each specific weld microstructure shows a certain hydrogen diffusion and solubility that contribute to susceptibility of the cracking phenomenon. Therefore hydrogen cannot be neglected as possible failure effect, which was identified recently in the case of T24 creep-resistant tubeto-tube weld joints. It is necessary to identify and assess the hydrogen effect in weld joints of low-alloyed steel grades for to improve further early detection of possible failures.
For each specific weld joint microstructure, it is necessary to separate the interdependencies between mechanical load and the hydrogen concentration. The
diffusivity and solubility must be considered to identify hydrogen quantities in the material at any given time. In this case, the effects of mechanical loading were dealt with independently. For the characterization of the mechanical properties, hydrogen charged tensile specimens were investigated for the base materials and thermally simulated HAZ
microstructures. The hydrogen diffusion was characterized with the permeation technique at room temperature and at elevated temperature ranges up to 400°C - It was investigated by interpreting the hydrogen effusion behavior with carrier gas hot extraction technique (CGHE). For realistic determination of the hydrogen diffusion coefficients, an improved
method was developed encompassing accelerated specimen heating and hydrogen determination via mass spectrometer (MS). Simultaneously, the corresponding temperature
dependent trapped and total hydrogen concentrations were determined.
The determined experimental results showed increased susceptibility to the hydrogen affected
degradation of the HAZ compared to the base material, which is independent of the investigated alloy composition. In particular, the martensitic coarse grain HAZ is the most susceptible microstructure to hydrogen-affected degradation. The results of the tensile
tests allowed the definition of consistent microstructure specific failure criteria (envelope curves) versus quantified hydrogen concentrations for the reactor pressure vessel 16MND5 steel (20MnMoNi-5-5) and the creep-resistant T24 steel (7CrMoVTiB10-10). The procedure of quantifying hydrogen concentrations in HAZ microstructures is novel and supports a new method of analysis for hydrogen degradation effects. Further investigations with the T22
steel (10CrMo9-10), as compared to the creep-resistant T24 steel (7CrMoVTiB10-10),
confirmed the beneficial effect of Vanadium as an alloying element to improve the resistance to degradation. In general, Mn-Mo-Ni base material grades show a higher resistance compared to Cr-Mo steels that do not include Vanadium alloying.
The investigations showed the decreased diffusion coefficient of the HAZ microstructure compared to the base material microstructure. This is caused by the stronger trapping effects that are present which simultaneously increase the hydrogen solubility as well. In
general, trapping effects above 100°C are negligible. It is noted that after testing the T24 grade, these trapping effects were observed above 100°C and must be considered. At elevated temperatures, the calculated hydrogen diffusion coefficients are sometimes greater than those in literature. This is primarily due to the unique applied specimen heating procedure resulting in a varied hydrogen effusion from the specimen.
The significance of the obtained results can be characterized in three perspectives. First, the direct comparison of the degradation was possible in terms of microstructure-specific hydrogen effects on the mechanical properties. Second, consistent failure criteria were established to quantify degradation vs. the hydrogen concentration. Third, the determination of more accurate hydrogen diffusion coefficients is now available.
From a scientific point of view, important contributions were made to further interpret the hydrogen effects on the macroscopic mechanical properties, with respect to the alloy composition and the microstructure. From a procedural standpoint, the mentioned deviation in the elevated temperature diffusion coefficients can be caused by the calculation method. This can be an explanation for the reported data scatter in the references.
In terms of an economic view, the presented experimental results contribute to a safe and reliable weld workability of the steel grades. Thus, the identified temperature levels of hydrogen trapping can be applied in the definition of minimum preheat, interpass or postheat temperatures. In addition, recommendations for suitable dehydrogenation heat treatment (DHT) procedures, with accurate temperature values and holding times, can be derived from these results. In the future, the application of the mechanical and diffusion data is intended to support numerical analysis methods to provide an improved prediction of hydrogen effects on material degradation in weld microstructures.
The discovery and design of high performance Pd-alloys is of great interest for the use of hydrogen as a future energy carrier. Therefore hydrogen has to be detected, separated from other gases and stored. In this respect this thesis presents the combinatorial synthesis and characterization of the ternary Pd-Ni-Co alloy System over a wide composition range based on so-called thin film alloy libraries. Those libraries are model systems to characterize a large number of alloy compositions at the same time. The sputter-deposition process is optimized for the gradient of the Pd concentration on the surface of the alloy library by the use of electron-excited Auger electron spectroscopy. The scientific goal of this work is the experimental Investigation of adsorbate-induced surface segregation phenomena on alloy libraries.
The surface and bulk compositions of an alloy library are studied after deposition, H2 exposure and H2S poisoning. The co-segregation of Ni and Co to the surface is observed. The segregation process is influenced by the oxidation of Ni and Co due to the contact with ambient air, by H2 and by H2S poisoning. Also at very high Pd concentrations in the range of 87 at.% to 97 at.%, which is interesting for the detection of very low H2-Concentrations in air, the co-segregation of Ni and Co takes place. The poisoning effects were investigated in detail on a pre-selected Pd-Ni-Co alloy by photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, HAXPES) in addition to AES and EDX. The composition profile of the alloy on the nm scale is acquired and the surface and bulk chemistry is discussed before and after poisoning. The composition of the alloy only changed within the first 3 nm due to H2S exposure. In the ternary Pd-Ni-Co alloy system Pd is present in its metallic state, while Ni and Co show several oxidation states. The presented concepts of ternary alloy development pave the way for the systematic synthesis and characterization of new ternary transition metal alloy systems.
Das Hauptanliegen der Arbeit besteht in der experimentellen Erforschung der faserbedingten mikrostrukturellen Schädigungsprozesse in brandbeanspruchtem HPC. Dazu werden das thermische Degradationsverhalten von Polypropylen-Fasern (PP-Fasern) mithilfe thermoanalytischer Verfahren aus der Polymerforschung untersucht und die Wechselwirkung der schmelzenden PP-Fasern mit dem umgebenden Betongefüge unter Verwendung hochtemperaturmikroskopischer Methoden analysiert. Des Weiteren werden erstmalig akustische und röntgentomographische Methoden zur zerstörungsfreien Untersuchung der Rissgenese in thermisch beanspruchten Betonproben kombiniert. Zur Validierung der Ergebnisse und zur Visualisierung von mikroskopischen Morphologieänderungen im Faserbereich werden ergänzend Bruchflächen von thermisch geschädigten Proben rasterelektronenmikroskopisch untersucht.
Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass durch die thermische Degradation der PP-Fasern zwischen 160 und 350 °C Kapillarröhren entstehen, die durch eine bei ca. 160 °C einsetzende Mikrorissbildung netzartig verbunden werden. Durch die Mikrorissbildung werden Spannungen im Mikrogefüge des Betons abgebaut (thermomechanischer Effekt) und die Ausbildung eines netzartig verbundenen Transportwegesystems für den ausströmenden Wasserdampf (thermohydraulischer Effekt) ermöglicht.
Als Synthese und Abschluss der Arbeit werden zwei Modelle entwickelt, in denen die theoretisch und experimentell gewonnenen Erkenntnisse für die Beschreibung der Wirkungsmechanismen von PP-Fasern zusammenfließen. In einem mikroporomechanischen Modell werden alle an dem Wirkmechanismus der PP-Fasern beteiligten Prozesse den Strukturelementen des Betons (Feststoff, Fluide und Porenraum) zugeordnet. Für eine weitere modellhafte Beschreibung der Wirkungsweise von PP-Fasern wird in einem einfachen thermodynamischen Modell der wassergefüllte Porenraum von HPC als thermodynamisch geschlossenes System idealisiert, bei dem das den Porenraum umgebende Feststoffgerüst die thermodynamische Systemgrenze bildet. Bei dieser Modellvorstellung wird anhand eines Temperatur-Entropie-Diagramms für Wasser gezeigt, dass durch die rissbedingte Öffnung der thermodynamischen Systemgrenze ab ca. 160 °C der thermodynamische Zustand des Porenwasser beeinflusst wird, so dass das Porenwasser bereits bei vergleichsweise niedrigem Druck und niedriger Temperatur vollständig verdampft, ohne den kritischen Grenzdruck von ca. 5 MPa (Zugfestigkeit des Betons) zu erreichen.
Glass is an amorphous material. When compared to steel, both its density and weight is three times lower. Its high theoretical strength makes it stand out as a premier material for a variety of applications. One such application is acting as a pressure resistant vessel for gas storage. Because glass has a high theoretical strength this makes it potentially suitable to withstand much higher pressures than steel or composite vessels. As a result of its brittle character, glass breaks when reaching a critical stress level. Therefore, the stress distribution during pressure load needs to be homogeneous without local stress peaks. At those peaks an initial crack will occur and the material will break. This PhD thesis is primarily concerned with the determination of the strength of several structures made of single hollow glass fibers during inner pressure treatment. Therefore, different kinds of hollow glass structures with varying parameters of shape and dimension were examined concerning their strength by determining the burst pressure. The burst pressure method was compared to the tensile test method, which poses the common test method for examining the strength of a material. The conclusion reached was that both test methods lead to comparable results and therefore, the burst pressure method poses an adequate tool for examining the strength of a hollow material against inner pressure. Another tool used in this thesis is the Finite Elements Method (FEM) simulation of internal stress and expansion of glass structures during pressure treatment. FEM was used to validate the burst pressure test results. A few selected material parameters needed to be incorporated, most notably the Young’s Modulus. Therefore, the expansion of single glass fibers was measured with light microscope during pressure load. Within the parameters of expansion, wall thickness and applied pressure, the Young’s Modulus was calculated with the Barlow’s Formula. According to the results, different two-dimensional models from single fibers to complex structures with up to 1000 single fibers were constructed and simulated with the CFD software Comsol Multiphysics. The expansion as well as the principal stress during pressure load was calculated. Different dimensions as well as different geometries of the glasses were considered to find a structure with the highest possible free volume and at the same time as less stress peaks as possible. This calculation was made in order to determine the best structure for gas storage. For this purpose the calculations were done with different dimensions of round single fibers right up to hexagonal structures consisting of more than one thousand round single fibers, which resulted in constant expansion of the structure. Furthermore, the problem of occurring interspaces between round single fibers, regarding their burst pressure-decreasing influence, was approached. Closing these interspaces with glass or other materials to avoid unsolicited pressure load led to increased strength of the structure and low storage capacities due to the increased weight and less free inner volume. The behavior of hexagonal fibers was determined as single fiber as well as in bundled condition. The walls between two hexagonal single fibers with applied inner pressure showed homogeneously distributed stress. Merely the outer walls without counter pressure showed high deformation and high structural stress. Based on that knowledge, several structures were modeled varying in different aspects. The fibers with hexagonal shape showed optimal stress distribution and high storage capacities because of high free inner volume, provided that these fibers are surrounded by additional fibers with identical inner pressure. Reducing the wall thickness for even higher free inner volume led to similar distribution but higher stress and expansion. To overcome the problem with the high stress at the outer fibers, the influence of outer fibers with different shape and dimension was simulated as well as the influence of solid glass fibers at the outer layer of the structure. The results showed that a structure with hexagonal thin-walled fibers should be surrounded by round fibers with higher wall thickness. This way the high stress peaks at the outer fibers are lowered. The examined practical strength of glass is about 100 to 1000 times lower than the theoretical strength. This is caused by defects, which may occur at the glass surface by handling or inside the material by defective production. Since the modeled results are based on the theoretical strength, the optimal wall thickness with a good compromise of strength and free inner volume needs to be found in practical tests. If further handling of the structures is necessary, an outer layer of solid fibers works as a protection layer against damages at the outer hollow glass fibers and increases the strength. Additionally, the influence of collapsing fibers inside a structure on the remaining system has been modeled as well as the influence of defects like holes or cracks at the surface or manufacturing induced defects inside the material. Any kind of defect leads to areas of high stress, whereby failure occurrence will be encouraged. In order to approve the theoretical results, the simulated structures were compared to the previously manufactured and tested ones. Due to the burst pressure test results, the tested structures showed low strength compared to the theoretical strength. This was primarily caused by the existence of defects in the material and on the surface of the glass structures. Therefore, the production process needs to be optimized in order to prevent such defects. Furthermore, an additional protection against outer influence like air humidity or the physical contact to other materials is required.
Einfluss der Porosität von Beton auf den Ablauf einer schädigenden Alkali-Kieselsäure-Reaktion
(2016)
This thesis deals with the question of how the porosity of concrete influences the process of a damaging alkali-silica-reaction (“ASR”). In particular, it is examined whether the use of slip form pavers and the reduced porosity resulting from this use have an effect on the process of a damaging ASR.
Since the 1980s slip form pavers have been used, which modifies the structure of concrete. However, these modifications have not yet been taken into consideration in the relevant technical guidelines. The use of slip form pavers instead of conventional concrete pavers results in a denser structure. Due to the denser structure the ductility and the porosity of the concrete decrease. Thus it is more difficult for the tensile stress to be reduced. Moreover, the space for the ASR gel to expand is reduced. These consequences promote the ASR. By contrast, the permeability of the concrete is lower. Hence, the penetration of external alkalis is reduced and the diffusion of the alkalis to the potentially reactive aggregate slowed down. Against this background the question arises whether the use of slip form pavers and the reduced porosity of the concrete increase the risk of a damaging ASR.
An innovative non-destructive testing methodology is applied to answer this question. Based on variations of the porosity it is examined which damage parameters influence the process and intensity of a damaging ASR. The damaging parameters taken into consideration are the mechanical properties of the concrete, the expansion space and the transport processes within the concrete. In order to determine the influence of the relevant damaging parameters two categories of tests are conducted: one category is based on a high internal potential for damages due to ASR, the other one on a high external potential. In both cases alkali-reactive slow/late aggregates are tested. The different porosities of the concrete mainly result from a variation of the w/c-ratio. In case of a high internal potential for ASR-damages the mechanical properties and the expansion space play the most important role. Furthermore; the influence of an air-entraining agent on the process of a damaging ASR is taken into account. The high internal potential for ASR-damages is provoked by the use of cement with a high amount of alkalises for the production of the concrete samples. These samples are stored in the 40 °C fog chamber storage and the 60 °C concrete prisms test. On the one hand the expansion and the change in mass as well as the eigenfrequency are measured discontinuously in the conventional way. On the other hand the innovative testing methodology applied to these ASR-provoked stored concrete samples serves to continuously measure the expansion and the hardening as well as crack formation processes. This methodology comprises a determination of the ultrasonic velocity and of acoustic emissions as well as 3-dimensional micro X-ray computed tomography (μ-3D-CT). The high external potential for ASR-damages is provoked by the cyclic climate storage, designed by FIB. The analysis of these concretes focuses on transportation processes.