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Forefields of receding glaciers are unique and sensitive environments representing natural soil chronosequences, where sulfate availability is assumed to be a limiting factor. Bacterial mineralization of organosulfur is an important sulfate-providing process in soils. We analyzed the diversity of sulfonate-desulfurizing (desulfonating) bacteria in the Damma glacier forefield on the basis of the key gene asfA by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism and clone libraries. The community structure and sequence diversity of desulfonating bacteria differed significantly between forefield soils deglaciated in the 1990s and the 1950s. Soil age had a strong effect on the desulfonating rhizosphere communities of Agrostis rupestris, but only a slight impact on the ones from Leucanthemopsis alpina. AsfA affiliated to Polaromonas sp. was predominantly found in the more recent ice-free soils and the corresponding rhizospheres of A. rupestris, while a group of unidentified sequences was found to be dominating the matured soils and the corresponding rhizospheres of A. rupestris. The desulfonating bacterial diversity was not affected by varying levels of sulfate concentrations. The level of asfA diversity in recently deglaciated soils suggests that desulfonating bacteria are a critical factor in sulfur cycling, with defined groups dominating at different stages of soil formation.
Bisphenol A polycarbonate/acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (PC/ABS) with and without bisphenol A bis(diphenyl phosphate) (BDP) and 5 wt.% zinc borate (Znb) were investigated. The pyrolysis was studied by thermogravimetry (TG), TG-FTIR and NMR, the fire behaviour with a cone calorimeter applying different heat fluxes, LOI and UL 94. Fire residues were examined with NMR. BDP affects the decomposition of PC/ABS and acts as a flame retardant in the gas and condensed phases. The addition of Znb results in an additional hydrolysis of PC. The fire behaviour is similar to PC/ABS, aside from a slightly increased LOI and a reduced peak heat release rate, both caused by borates improving the barrier properties of the char. In PC/ABS + BDP + Znb, the addition of Znb yields a borate network and amorphous phosphates. Znb also reacts with BDP to form alpha-zinc phosphate and borophosphates that suppress the original flame retardancy mechanisms of BDP. The inorganic–organic residue formed provides more effective flame retardancy, in particular at low irradiation in the cone calorimeter, and a clear synergy in LOI, whereas for more developed fires BDP + Znb become less effective than BDP in PC/ABS with respect to the total heat evolved.
The determination of amino groups on surfaces capable of binding biomolecules is important for the understanding and optimization of technologically relevant coupling processes. In this study, three different types of amino-functionalized model surfaces, amino thiolate on Au, amino siloxane on Si, and polyethylene (PE) foils and films reacted with 1,2-diaminoethane (DAE) were derivatized with 3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl isothiocyanate. Subsequently, these samples were analyzed by chemical derivatization X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (CD-XPS) and near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy (NEXAFS). The determination of amino groups by this analytical approach allows gaining insight into the availability of groups on surfaces that can actually serve as attachment sites for biomolecules in technical applications. In the case of the amino thiolate on Au, almost 90% of the expected amino groups were detected by CD-XPS. Investigation of the amino siloxane films revealed lower yields for the derivatization reaction in the order of 30%. The lowered reaction yields are thought to be due to interactions between the amino siloxane`s amino and silanol groups or the underlying substrate, making them inaccessible to the derivatization agent. The aminated PE samples are characterized by a complex surface chemistry and structure, and reaction yields of the derivatization reaction cannot be unequivocally derived. However, 1-3% of the total carbon atoms in the surface layer were found to be bound to amino groups accessible to the derivatization agent. It can be concluded that, depending on the detailed character of the investigated amino-terminated surface, the amount of amino groups accessible to CD-XPS can be substantially lower than the total amount of amino groups present at the surface.