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Eingeladener Vortrag
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Mechanische Eigenschaften der laserhybridgeschweißten Schweißverbindungen von hochfesten niedriglegierten Stählen erfüllen die Anforderungen der geltenden Normen
Eindringtiefe des Zusatzwerkstoff bis ca. 12 mm
Halborbitales Schweißen an 36” Rohren mit einer Wandstärke von 16 mm bei einer Schweißgeschwindigkeit von bis zu 2,2 m/min und Laserleistung von 19 kW technisch möglich
Rissfreie Schweißverbindungen an Präzisionsrohren können durch eine geeignete Schweißparameterauswahl mittels Laser-Hybridverfahren hergestellt werden
Micrometric surface topologies are required for a wide range of technical applications. While lowered surface features have been used for many years to improve the tribological behavior of contacting surfaces, there are also other fields of application, where the potential of elevated surface features is known, e. g. for metal forming tools. However, the demand for a high wear resistance of these structures often inhibits an industrial application. A solution is offered by structuring techniques that use additional material. A promising approach is the localized dispersing of hard ceramic particles by pulsed laser radiation, the so-called laser implantation. This paper describes the potential to adjust the geometry as well as the mechanical properties of laser implanted surfaces by means of microstructural and topological investigations. Afterwards, results of a wear test are given and different applications for this structuring technique are discussed. It can be shown that dome-shaped or ring-shaped structures on a micrometric scale can be produced with high hardness and wear resistance.
The complex microstructure and the advanced mechanical properties of AHSS steel types lead to an increased susceptibility to weld cracking, especially during resistance spot welding under ‘rough’ manufacturing conditions.
Various activities have been conducted in recent years at the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) and the Fraunhofer IPK on this matter. Understandings about the safe spot weldability and the process of crack-forming itself were gained, and solutions for handling this issue given.
The performed work includes investigations on the influence of initial gaps as well as restraint intensity. An experimental method for the determination of the general cracking susceptibility, i.e. a material ranking of AHSS in respective to current restraints was developed. Coupled mechanical and thermal simulations of the welding process show the present internal stress-strain-conditions and values responsible for the formation of cracks, deepening the understanding of the process.
By using this easy to perform and material-independent method for the determination of the cracking susceptibility in resistance spot welded joints, small and medium sized companies can profit by rapidly evaluating the joinability of their handled material combinations as well as OEMs.
Manganese alloyed stainless steels represent a cost-effective alternative to conventional CrNi- stainless steels due to strong fl uctuations of the market prices for nickel seen during the last years. In CrMnNi steels, nickel is partially replaced by lower-cost manganese and small amounts of nitrogen for stabilization of the austenitic phase. This also brings benefi ts regarding the mechanical properties, as it results in an increased material strength. Laser beam welding of such materials was investigated for direct comparison with Standard CrNi steels. Main emphasis was laid on fi nding adequate process parameters to achieve a stable welding process and obtain a good weld quality. Two different laser sources, a 4.4 kW Nd:YAG and a 5 kW CO2 laser, were used to weld 1.5 mm stainless steel sheets in continuous wave mode. A high-Mn austenitic (1.4376) and a lean duplex (1.4162) steel, as well as the standard austenitic (1.4301) and duplex (1.4362) grades were selected as test materials. Both butt and lap joint confi gurations were studied. Experiments were carried out systematically, varying the welding speed, laser power and focal point position in order to determine adequate process windows. The infl uence of the shielding gas type and fl ow rate on the process stability and the weld quality were investigated. The effects of weld edge preparation on the weld appearance and quality levels attained were also examined. The obtained welded joints were subjected to radiographic tests for detection of internal imperfections. Also a metallurgical characterization of the samples regarding the resulting phase composition or balance and hardness depending on the welding process parameters was conducted. Furthermore, tensile and potentiodynamic tests were performed to evaluate the mechanical and corrosion properties, respectively. The results provide an insight into the advantages and limitations of the laser beam welding process for joining high-manganese alloyed stainless steels. Conditions for the production of defect-free and corrosion-resistant welds having good mechanical properties could be determined.
In dieser Studie wurde die Heißrissanfälligkeit beim Laserstrahlschweißen für die Werkstoffe 1.4376, 1.4301 und 1.4828 mit Hilfe des CTW Test quantifiziert. Bei den Versuchen konnten Erstarrungsrisse in den Proben generiert werden. Zusätzlich können mit der Bildkorrelations-Technik die lokalen Dehnungen und Dehnungsraten während des Heißrisstests gemessen wer den. In Verbindung mit einem externen Diodenlaser zum Beleuchten der zu messende Oberfläche und lnterferenzfiltern an den Kameras konnten die DIC Messungen ohne optische Störungen durchgeführt werden.
Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Heißrissbildung bei einer externen Belastung von 3 % für die Stahlsorte 1.4376 zu erwarten ist. Für die Stahls orte 1.4301 beträgt dieser Grenzwert 2 % und 1,5 % für die Stahlgüte 1.4828. Außerdem ist zu beobachten, dass die Gesamtrisslänge mit zu nehmender äußerer Zugbeanspruchung steigt
Die in dieser Studie vorgestellte einfache Probengeometrie zeigt sich in Verbindung mit der
angewandten Versuchs- und Auswertemethodik geeignet, um den umwandlungsplastischen (TRIP)-Parameter K unter Verwendung des thermomechanischen Simulators Gleeble® 3500 experimentell zu bestimmen.
Der TRIP-Parameter K wurde für die Grundwerkstoffe S355J2+N und S960QL, sowie für den hochlegierten Zusatzwerkstoff CN13-4 -IG bestimmt.
Die numerische Einflussanalyse zeigt, dass bei der Berechnung von (Oberflächen-)Schweißeigen-spannungen die Vernachlässigung des TRIP-Effektes kaum einen Einfluss auf die Längseigenspannungen hat. Im Gegensatz da zu resultieren gegenüber dem Referenzfall signifikante Abweichungen der
Quereigenspannungen im und um den Schweißnahtbereich.
Die Verdopplung des TRIP-Parameters K gegenüber dem Referenzfall hat nur einen vernachlässigbaren Einfluss auf die Längs- sowie Quereigenspannungen auf der Oberfläche.
Für eine qualitative und quantitative numerische Nachbildung der experimentell bestimmten Längs- und Quereigenspannungen ist die Berücksichtigung der Größenordnung des material-abhängigen TRIP-Parameters K notwendig.
Build-up strategies for generating components of cylindrical shape with laser metal deposition
(2015)
Laser Metal Deposition LMD) as additive manufacturing process offers the potential to produce near net shape components. This reduces the amount of material and post-processing. The components are composed of individual layers. Already mall irregularities within a layer can add up over multiple layers and lead to error propagation. This paper deals with the issue of build-up strategies to minimize irregularities and prevent error propagation. Different travel paths and the influence of a changing starting point regarding to error propagation are discussed. Different deposition rates between core and peripheral area are detected and successfully compensated by adjusting the build-up sequence. Stainless steel and titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V are used in the experiments. The results are intended to illustrate the potential of an adjusted build-up strategy and provide basic information on the way to an automated deposition process. This paper is of interest for engineers in industry or science using LMD as additive manufacturing process.
The numerical simulations of high power laser keyhole welding at different welding positions are performed by using Volume-Of-Fluid (VOF) method. The main material is SS400. The multi-physics phenomenon is considered using several models, such as the heat flux of Gaussian heat source, the recoil pressure with Clausisus-Clapeyron equation, the Marangoni flow considering temperature gradient, the buoyancy force with Boussinesq approximation, the additional shear stress and heat source due to metallic vapor ejected through keyhole entrance, the bubble formation assumed as adiabatic bubble, and the multiple-reflection by solving proper discriminant, are used. To analyze the fluid flow pattern, the concept of streamline formed by reconstructing the value of the velocity vector is applied.
Partial and full penetration cases at different welding positions are considered. The welding position seems to have only a minor influence on bead formation characteristics in both cases. This is probably due to the fact that the recoil pressure has a major influence when compared to other driving forces. The flow characteristics and fluid velocity in weld pool are analyzed to compare the gravity direction effect at different welding positions. It is observed that the clockwise flow pattern is mainly formed by the recoil pressure on the keyhole surface in the case of partial penetration. The laser energy can't maintain the whole weld pool when the weld pool size becomes too large. And then the solidification starts from the middle part of weld pool and a necked weld pool shape is formed. In the full penetration welding, the weld pool flow patterns are affected by the leakage of laser power through the full penetration keyhole and also by surface tension. Furthermore, the numerical simulation of full penetration welding with AISI316L is also performed to analyze the effect of material properties. The weld bead shapes obtained by simulations were compared with the corresponding experimental results to confirm the validity of the process models adopted and the CFD simulation tool.
Die stetig zunehmenden Anforderungen an Kraftstoffverbrauch, Schadstoffemission, sowie passive Sicherheit haben die Automobilindustrie vor Herausforderungen gestellt, die nur durch einen konsequenten Einsatz moderner hochfester Stahlwerkstoffe zu bewältigen sind. Obgleich eine generelle Eignung dieser Stähle für das Widerstandspunktschweißen (WPS) gegeben ist, kann es durch verschiedene externe Einflüsse im betrieblichen Umfeld zur Rissbildung in der Schweißverbindung kommen. Der Einfluss dieser Risse auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften ist derzeit nicht hinreichend genau erfasst, so dass häufig die Vorgabe einer rissfreien Schweißverbindung besteht. Die Kenntnis der Rissanfälligkeit der verarbeiteten Materialkombinationen sowie von ungünstigen Schweißparametern ist daher für viele Unternehmen von erheblicher wirtschaftlicher Bedeutung. Im Rahmen des FOSTA Projekts P921 „Entwicklung eines Verfahrens zur Bestimmung der Rissanfälligkeit von hochfesten Stählen beim Widerstandspunktschweißen“ wurde ein Ansatz zur Bestimmung der Rissanfälligkeit von WPS-Verbindungen hochfester Stähle entwickelt. Mittels einer hydraulischen Vorrichtung unter Zugbelastung wurden geschweißte, rissbehaftete Proben optisch ausgewertet. Das Verfahren ist geeignet, um ein Werkstoffranking bezüglich der Rissanfälligkeit beim Widerstandspunktschweißen für Werkstoffe aufzustellen.
Experimental study and numerical simulation of hot crack formation for novel laser weldability test.
(2015)
Laser beam welding is a widely established manufacturing process in several industries. The solidification cracking seriously effecting the safety of welded joints could arise during the beam welding of stainless steels caused by high solidification rates. In this study the controlled tensile weldability test (CTW) was used to investigate the solidification cracking susceptibility the fully austenitic stainless steels CrMnNi (1.4376), CrNi (1.4301), CrNiMo (1.4404) and CrNiSi (1.4828) during laser beam welding. The test facility allows welding of specimens with simultaneous application of tensile load along or cross to the welding direction while the speed of tensile force application is either constant or increases linearly. The tensile force increment and/or the displacement are set by means of a CNC controller. Trials were conducted by varying the ultimate tensile strain and cross-head speed while keeping the welding parameters constant. By observing the crack-no crack behaviour and estimating the generated crack length for each trail using a new optimized experimental procedure the influence of the two important conditions (the strain and the strain rate) for the formation of solidification cracks can be investigated, the critical values of strain and strain rate that are responsible for solidification cracking formation have been determined. In the present study a three-dimensional FEM using the contact element technique was developed to simulate the solidification cracking during laser full penetration welding under external load conditions for the steel 1.4376 in order to get a better understanding of the mechanisms of hot crack initiation and the theoretical results were compared to the experimental ones. By comparing the resulting solidification crack with simulated crack, it is possible to determine the critical condition of solidification crack formation in the region where the strains and the strain rates cannot be measured due to the high temperature. The results show a good agreement between numerical calculation and experiment. It is proposed that the solidification cracking susceptibility may be predicted by FEM analysis by using the correct mechanical and thermo-physical constants of the materials.
Der Einsatz von Hochleistungswerkstoffen verlangt nach einer hohen Endformnähe der zu fertigenden Bauteile, um den Aufwand und somit die Kosten für Materialeinsatz und Nachbearbeitung möglichst gering zu halten. Der additive Einsatz in Form des Laser-Pulver-Auftragschweißens bietet hierfür durch den gezielten Materialauftrag ein hohes Potential. Herausforderungen bestehen in Bereichen der Vorhersagbarkeit und der Reproduzierbarkeit des Materialauftrages, sowie der Fertigungszeit. Unterschiedliche Einflüsse bei der Schichterzeugung führen dabei zu Abweichungen von der Soll-Geometrie. Die vorliegenden Untersuchungen behandeln den Einfluss von Spurgeometrie, Spurüberlappung, Verfahrweg und Aufbaureihenfolge auf die entstehende Bauteilform. Die Teilung einer Lage in Rand- und Kernbereich ermöglicht einen konturangepassten Verfahrweg und eine Erhöhung der Endformnähe innerhalb einer Ebene. Die Verwendung unterschiedlicher Spurgrößen bei der Bauteilerzeugung verdeutlicht die Möglichkeiten einer hohen Auftragsrate bei gleichzeitig hoher Formgenauigkeit. Bereits kleine Unterschiede beim Materialauftrag zwischen Kern- und Randbereichen, Start- und Endpunkten sowie in Bereichen des Richtungswechsels führen aufgrund von Fehlerfortpflanzung nachmehreren Lagen zu Abweichungen in der Aufbaurichtung. Kompensierungen mittels angepasster Baustrategien werden aufgezeigt und diskutiert. Die Nickelbasislegierung Inconel 718, die Titanlegierung Ti-6Al-4V sowie der austenitische Stahl 316L sind Bestandteil der vorliegenden Untersuchungen. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse verdeutlichen das Potenzial einer angepassten Aufbaustrategie zur reproduzierbaren Erzeugung von Bauteilen am Beispiel unterschiedlicher Körpergeometrien.
Heat treated 9%Ni steel is considered the most suitable and economic material for construction of large-size liquefied natural gas (LNG) storage tanks which operate at cryogenic temperatures (-196°C). Strength above 700 MPa as well as a minimum impact value of 60 J are required to ensure reliable operation of the LNG tanks at operating temperature. Conventional arc welding processes, including shielded metal arc welding, gas metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding and submerged arc welding, are currently used in construction of LNG tanks. Ni based filler wire is the preferred filler metal of choice in LNG tank construction. The main problem with this choice is the lower mechanical properties, particularly tensile strength of the weld metal. To compensate, the wall thickness needs to be excessively thick to ensure the strength of the welded structures. Ni based filler material is expensive and a large quantity is needed to fill the multi-pass weld grooves. These factors significantly add to the cost in the fabrication of LNG storage tanks. For these reasons, exploration of new welding technologies is a priority. A big potential can be seen in laser based welding techniques. Laser beam welding results in much smaller fusion zone with chemical composition and mechanical properties similar to that of the base material. Laser welding is a much faster process and allows for a joint geometry which requires less filler material and fewer welding passes. The advantages of laser welding can help to overcome the problems pointed out above. Trials of autogenous laser welding, laser cold-wire welding and hybrid laser-arc welding conducted on the 9%Ni steel are presented in this paper. Chemical composition of the weld metal as well as effects of welding parameters on the weld formation, microstructure and tensile strength is discussed. Filler wire penetration depth as well as character of its distribution in the narrow laser welds was examined using EPMA - electron probe microanalysis.
Laser welding is a widely established manufacturing process in many industry sectors. Solidification cracking represents one of the most inadequately solved problems in welding and has major economic implications. The avoidance of hot crack is for most fusion welding processes a key challenge for an important range of metallic construction materials and affects not only the manufacturers of welding equipment and material manufacturers, but also a large number of customers using welding technologies, as well as welding standardization and research. In this study a new investigation programme has been developed to qualify the hot cracking susceptibility of a variety of austenitic stainless steels. The results show the possibility of using this technique to determinate the critical values that occur with initiation of solidification cracking during laser beam welding
Solidification cracking phenomena taking place under Controlled Tensile Weldability (CTW) test conditions have already been investigated both experimentally and numerically via FEA in order to get a better understanding of the mechanisms of hot crack formation during laser beam welding of austenitic steel grades. This paper develops a three dimensional finite element model employing the contact elements technique to simulate the formation and propagation of solidification cracks during laser full penetration welding of fully austenitic stainless steel 1.4376. During the experimental procedure the resulting strain and displacement directed to the laser beam in the Close vicinity of the weld pool was measured at the surface of the workpiece using a Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique with an external diode laser as an illuminating source. Local strain fields, global loads and crack lengths predicted by the model are in good Agreement with those observed in experiments.
Laser welding is a widely established manufacturing process in many industry sectors. Solidification cracking represents one of the most inadequately solved problems in welding and has major economic implications. The avoidance of hot crack forms for most fusion welding processes poses a key challenge for an important range of metallic construction materials and affects not only the manufacturers of welding equipment and material manufacturers, but also a large number of customers using welding technologies, as well as welding technical standardization and research. Solidification cracking susceptibility was examined with the help of the Controlled Tensile Weldability Test (CTW) developed by Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Berlin. The test is based on the fact that hot crack formation depends on a critical strain that emerges within a critical temperature range, the so called brittle temperature range (BTR). Using this test and defined investigation programme a centreline solidification crack was generated. By controlling the applied strain during the laser beam welding process, it was possible to determine the critical strain and strain rate that led to solidification cracking formation. The hot cracking susceptibility of the tested stainless steels was qualified and quantified. The results demonstrate that the crack length increases with increasing applied strain. Furthermore, the strain rate has a significant influence on the formation of the solidification crack.
Impiego di un dispositivo per il vuoto locale di tipo mobile nell'applicazione del processo laser.
(2016)
Lo sviluppo del pennacchio di vapore durante la saldatura laser
di metalli con direzioni di propagazione lungo l'asse del
fascio laser comporta una riduzione della potenza del laser
assorbita nel keyhole. Questi effetti negativi possono essere
notevolmente attenuati mediante l'applicazione di una ridotta
pressione ambientale, diminuendo così l'interazione
tra il fascio laser ed i prodotti dell'evaporazione, condizione
che favorisce la stabilità del processo di saldatura e si traduce
in una maggiore profondità di penetrazione. Una tecnica
convenzionale utilizza il principio della camera a vuoto, simile
a quello utilizzato per la saldatura a fascio elettronico.
L'applicazione di questa tecnica è limitata dalle dimensioni
della camera e riduce quindi i vantaggi di questo approccio,
particolarmente per componenti di grandi dimensioni. Abbiamo
dimostrato la possibilità di applicazione del vuoto in
forma localizzata con apparecchiature mobili, che consentono
di generare una pressione ridotta solo in una piccola zona
attorno al keyhole. Utilizzando un dispositivo di chiusura
appositamente progettato per la pressione, di tipo mobile,
che può essere spostato lungo l'asse del giunto è possibile ottenere
una pressione assoluta di circa 200 mbar. Questo è
sufficiente per aumentare la profondità di penetrazione di
circa il 50%. I campioni di acciaio grado S355 sono stati
saldati con una potenza laser incrementale da 5 kW a 12
kW a pressione atmosferica e confrontati con quelli saldati
a pressione ambiente di 200 mbar. La valutazione della sezione
longitudinale ha rivelato un aumento della profondità
di penetrazione dei giunti di circa il 35%. Inoltre, sono stati
eseguiti test di saldatura in configurazione di giunti testa a
testa con lamiere di 15 mm di spessore con diverse potenze
associate al fascio laser eseguiti a pressione atmosferica ed
a pressione ambiente ridotta di circa 200 mbar. L'aumento
nella profondità di penetrazione fino al 40% è relativo alla
pressione ridotta. In particolare, basse velocità di saldatura
con pressione ridotta si sono rivelate particolarmente vantaggiose
in termini di aumento della penetrazione.
In einem Forschungsvorhaben wurde der Einfluss von fertigungsbedingten Spalten von bis zu 3 mm auf das Tragverhalten der Widerstandspunktschweißverbindungen aus Stählen am Beispiel von HX340LAD+Z (Werkstoffnummer 1.0933), HCT780X+Z (1.0943), HCT980C (1.0955) und 22MnB5+AS140 untersucht. Neben spaltabhängigen Schweißbereichen wurden auch statische Festigkeit, dynamische Festigkeit sowie Schwingfestigkeit betrachtet. Schließlich wurden ein Prozesssicherheitskoeffizient sowie eine Prozess-Festigkeits-Kenngröße abgeleitet, mit deren Hilfe der Anwender das Verhalten der Punktschweißverbindungen unter Spalteinfluss beurteilen kann.
An electromagnetic weld pool support system for 20 mm thick duplex stainless steel AISI 2205 was investigated numerically and compared to experiments. In our former publications, it was shown how an AC magnetic field below the process zone directed perpendicular to the welding direction can induce vertically directed Lorentz forces. These can counteract the gravitational forces and allow for a suppression of material drop-out for austenitic stainless steels and aluminum alloys. In this investigation, we additionally adopted a steady-state complex magnetic permeability model for the consideration of the magnetic hysteresis behavior due to the ferritic characteristics of the material. The model was calibrated against the Jiles-Atherton model. The material model was also successfully tested against an experimental configuration before welding with a 30 mm diameter cylinder of austenitic stainless steel surrounded by duplex stainless steel. Thereby, the effects of the Curie temperature on the magnetic characteristics in the vicinity of the later welding zone were simulated. The welding process was modelled with a 3D turbulent steady-state model including heat transfer and fluid dynamics as well as the electromagnetic field equations. Main physical effects, the thermo-capillary (Marangoni) convection at the weld pool boundaries, the natural convection due to gravity as well as latent heat of solid–liquid phase transitions at the phase boundaries were accounted for in the model. The feedback of the electromagnetic forces on the weld pool was described in terms of the electromagneticinduced pressure. The FE software COMSOL Multiphysics 4.2 was used in this investigation. It is shown that the gravity drop-out associated with the welding of 20 mm thick duplex stainless steel plates due to the hydrostatic pressure can be prevented by the application of AC magnetic fields between around 70 mT and 90 mT. The corresponding oscillation frequencies were between 1 kHz and 10 kHz and the electromagnetic AC powers were between 1 kW and 2.3 kW. In the experiments, values of the electromagnetic AC power between 1.6 kW and 2.4 kW at oscillation frequencies between 1.2 kHz and 2.5 kHz were found to be optimal to avoid melt sagging or drop-out of melt in single pass fullpenetration laser beam welding of 15 mm and 20 mm thick AISI 2205.
Full penetration high power bead-on-plate laser beam welding tests of up to 20 mm thick 2205 duplex steel plates were performed in PA position. A contactless inductive electromagnetic (EM) weld pool support system was used to prevent gravity drop-out of the melt. Welding experiments with 15 mm thick plates were carried out using IPG fiber laser YLR 20000 and Yb:YAG thin disk laser TruDisk 16002. The laser power needed to achieve a full penetration was found to be 10.9 and 8.56kW for welding velocity of 1.0 and 0.5 m min(-1), respectively. Reference welds without weld pool support demonstrate excessive root sag. The optimal value of the alternating current (AC) power needed to completely compensate the sagging on the root side was found to be approximate to 1.6 kW for both values of the welding velocity. The same EM weld pool support system was used in welding tests with 20 mm thick plates. The laser beam power (TRUMPF Yb:YAG thin disk laser TruDisk 16002) needed to reach a full penetration for 0.5 m min(-1) was found to be 13.9 kW. Full penetration welding without EM weld pool support is not possible-the surface tension cannot stop the gravity drop-out of the melt. The AC power needed to completely compensate the gravity was found to be 2 kW. (C) 2016 Laser Institute of America