Ingenieurwissenschaften und zugeordnete Tätigkeiten
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Automotive engine lubricants
(2019)
In 2003, ASTM Manual 37, Fuels and Lubricants Handbook: Technology, Properties, Performance and Testing, featured a chapter discussing automotive lubricants, including engine oils, automatic transmission fluids, manual transmission fluids, gear lubricants, and greases. This chapter, by Schwartz, Tung, and McMillan, surveyed all of these classes of lubricants, up to its publication in 2003.
More recently, the period between 2003 and 2010 has been addressed as part of a book copublished by ASTM and SAE International (coeditors Simon Tung and George Totten), where Fox surveyed the development of engine oil specifications that emerged during those years.
This chapter surveys the evolution of engine oil design and testing since 2002 and concludes with insights into future directions offered by recent tribological research. Our objective is to provide a reader new to the field with an understanding of the following:
- Engine oil composition and formulation
- North American engine oil specification development, and an outline of emergent European specifications
- How emergent specifications and legislative requirements are linked to the introduction of new engine hardware
- How tribological innovation can contribute to future enhancements in engine efficiency
In parallel, we will provide several tables comparing groups of contemporaneous specifications.
Additive Fertigungsverfahren gewinnen aufgrund der schnellen, flexiblen und kosten-günstigen Fertigung von Bauteilen zunehmend an Bedeutung. Das Laserpulverauf-tragschweißen (LPA) wurde anfangs hauptsächlich als Beschichtungsverfahren ein-gesetzt. Diese Technologie bewerkstelligt aber auch das Reparieren von verschlisse-nen Bauteilen, sodass diese zeitsparend und ressourcenschonend erneuert werden können. Die hohe Aufbaurate, die flexible Pulverzusammensetzung sowie die hohe Endkonturnähe ermöglichen heutzutage die Entwicklung und additive Fertigung von neuen Materialien, wie zum Beispiel Nickel-Titan-Formgedächtnislegierungen.
The determination of mechanical properties of welded Steel structures such as strength or ductility is a subject of high interest for the majority of Companies in the area of metal Processing. The material Parameters can be obtained by performing the tensile test on the samples made from a part of a component. In some cases, it is highly expensive to produce the tensile specimens especially from the weld metal, which contains different type of microstructure such as weld seam or heat affected zone in an extremely small area. Therefore, a method is described in this paper to determine the material Parameters of high strength Steel structures and welded joints locally and without any additional effort to perform the tensile test. In this method, instrumented indentation technique (IIT), an indenter is pushed on the flat surface of a specimen in a certain period of time and simultaneously the applied force and the corresponding indentation path are measured. The data related to the force-indentation diagram is given as input to an artificial neural network (ANN) to obtain the material Parameters. The ANN can be trained by generating the large qualitative data sets with numerical Simulation of the IIT procedure. The Simulation must be run several times with the different material model parameter sets to generate the numerous
force-indentation diagrams as the inputs of ANN. Then, the trained ANN is validated by performing the IIT on the welded joints and comparing the obtained material Parameters from ANN with the tensile test.
Consequently, the mechanical properties of welded joints can be determined by performing the IIT and evaluating the resulting data by the ANN.
To increase the competitiveness of jacket substructures compared to monopiles a changeover from an individual towards a serial jacket production based on automated manufactured tubular joints combined with standardized pipes has to be achieved. Therefore, this paper addresses fatigue tests of automatically welded tubular X-joints focusing on the location of the technical fatigue crack. The detected location of the technical crack is compared to numerical investigations predicting the most fatigue prone notch considering the structural stress approach as well as the notch stress approach. Besides, the welding process of the automated manufactured tubular X-joints is presented.
Chemical effects during the formation of femtosecond laser-induced periodic surface structures
(2019)
The processing of laser-induced periodic surface structures (LIPSS, ripples) on metals and semiconductors in ambient air is usually accompanied by superficial oxidation effects – a fact that is widely neglected in the current literature. In this contribution, chemical, structural, and mechanical alterations in the formation of femtosecond LIPSS are characterized by a variety of surface analytical techniques, including energy dispersive X-ray analyses (EDX), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), micro Raman spectroscopy (µ-RS), and depth-profiling Auger electron microscopy (AEM). Alternative routes of electrochemical and thermal oxidation allow to qualify the relevance of superficial oxidation effects on the tribological performance in oil lubricated reciprocating sliding tribological tests (RSTT). It is revealed that the fs-laser processing of near-wavelength sized LIPSS on metals leads to the formation of a few hundreds of nanometers thick graded oxide layers, consisting mainly of amorphous oxides. Regardless of reduced hardness and limited thickness, this nanostructured surface layer efficiently prevents a direct metal-to-metal contact in the RSTT and may also act as an anchor layer for specific wear-reducing additives contained in the used engine oil.
µCT is used to validate the capability of online monitoring for in-situ detection of defects during the L-PBF build process, which is a focus of the TF project ProMoAM.
Our first experiments show that online monitoring using thermography and optical tomography cameras are able to detect defects in the built part. But further research is needed to understand root cause of the correlation.
The Influence of the Temperature Gradient on the Distribution of Residual Stresses in AM AISI 316L
(2019)
Steep temperature gradients and solidification shrinkage are the main contributors to the formation of residual stresses in additively manufactured metallic parts produced by laser beam melting. The aim of this work was to determine the influence of the temperature gradient.
Diffraction results show a similar pattern for both specimens, indicating the shrinkage to be more dominant for the distribution of residual stresses than the temperature gradient. Thermography results imply that a higher energy input result in higher compressive residual stresses in the bulk.
Solidification cracking of metals is a well-researched topic in the field of welding science. A material’s susceptibility to solidification cracking can be tested using numerous different specialized test procedures, one of which is the Modified Varestraint-/Transvarestraint test (MVT). It was developed at BAM in 1982 and is internationally standardised. Over the decades, this test has been extensively used to characterise the solidification cracking resistance of many different materials.
The present study was conducted to further investigate the influences of the standardised MVT testing parameters, as well as the characteristics of evaluation methods on the results. Several different high alloyed martensitic LTT (low transformation temperature) filler materials, CrNi and CrMn type, were used. In previous pilot studies, these alloys have shown a rather distinctive solidification cracking behaviour (Fig. 1). During testing, energy input per unit length and bending speed were varied (especially the latter is usually kept at standard values), in addition to the most commonly altered factor - total deformation.
First, the effects of different process parameter sets on the solidification cracking response were measured using the standard approach - microscopic analysis of the specimen surface. It was found that not all parameter changes had the expected outcome. For the Cr8Ni6 and Cr11Mn5 filler materials, influences of energy input per unit length and welding speed were in direct opposition.
In order to investigate those apparent contradictions, µCT scans of MVT specimens were made. The results consistently show sub surface cracking, to significant, yet varying extents. Different primary solidification types were found using WDX-analysis, an aspect that is believed to be the main difference between the CrNi- and CrMn-type materials and their cracking characteristics.
Results show that when it comes to testing of modern high-performance alloys, one set of standard MVT testing parameters might not be equally suitable for all materials. Also, to properly accommodate different solidification types, sub-surface cracking has to be taken into account.
Als Ausgangspunkt für i-TRIBOMAT schließen vier renommierte Institutionen in Europa, darunter die BAM, ihre Test- und Analytik-Methoden zusammen. Es entsteht ein Testfeld aus weit über 100 Tribometern mit den entsprechenden, analytischen Kapazitäten. Alle Ergebnisse fließen in eine harmonisierte Datenbank, die tribologische Erkenntnisse mit Materialeigenschaften ebenso zugänglich macht, wie Hinweise auf ökologische und gesundheitliche Verträglichkeiten. Diese Datenbank bildet zusätzlich das Rückgrat einer Vielzahl von Modellierungsmethoden, die die Entwicklungszeiten von der Idee bis zum marktreifen Produkt deutlich verkürzen sollen. Alle diese Möglichkeiten sollen über eine europaweit agierende, zentrale Kontaktstelle zur Verfügung gestellt werden.
Im Beitrag sind die Vor- und Nachteile beim Einsatz von Ultraschallunterstützung für das Zerspanen von harten und spröden Werkstoffen zusammengefasst. Des Weiteren werden aktuelle und zukünftige Analysen zum Thema ultraschallunterstütztes Zerspanen mit geometrisch bestimmter Schneide schwer zerspanbarer Materialien vorgestellt.
Over the last years, the weight of modern car bodies has risen significantly due to the increasing customers’ demand for comfort and safety equipment. However, this ongoing trend leads to an increasing fuel consumption and thus to higher carbon dioxide emissions. In order to counteract these problems, hot stamping has been established in the automotive industry as a key technolo-gy for lightweight construction, regarding the manufacturing of safety-relevant car body compo-nents. Hot stamped parts are commonly made out of boron-manganese steel 22MnB5, which is initially austenized and subsequently formed and quenched in one process step. As a result, geo-metrical complex structures with an ultimate tensile strength of 1500 MPa are generated. The surfaces of the workpieces are coated with an Al-Si layer to avoid oxide scale formation and to ensure corrosion protection. However, the coating system leads to an increased adhesive wear on the tool surface due to the high thermo-mechanical tool stresses. Therefore, a time and cost con-suming rework of the hot stamping tools is required. The aim of this study is to increase the tribological performance of hot stamping tools by using a laser implantation process. This tech-nique allows the ma-nufacturing of separated, elevated and dome-shaped microstructures on the tool surface in consequence of a localized dispersing of hard ceramic particles by pulsed laser radiation. The generated surface features offer great potential for reducing the tribological load, due to their high hardness and wear resistance. For this purpose, the friction coefficient of un-modified and laser implanted tool surfaces were examined and compared by using a modified pin-on-disk test. In addition, the surfaces were analyzed by optical measurements in order to quantify the amount of wear.
Wirtschaftliche und ökologische Aspekte führten in den letzten Jahren zu deutlich gesteigerten Anforderungen an die Effizienz und die Flexibilität petrochemischer Anlagen. Die heutzutage geforderten Prozesstemperaturen und -drücke lassen sich nur durch den Einsatz neuer warmfester Stahlgüten erreichen. Der mit Vanadium modifizierte Stahl 13CrMoV9-10 weist eine bessere Kriech- und Druckwasserstoffbeständigkeit auf und wird seit Mitte der 90er Jahre im petrochemischen Reaktorbau eingesetzt. Aufgrund der niedrigen Zähigkeit und hohen Festigkeit des Schweißgutes im geschweißten, nicht spannungsarm geglühten Zustand sowie einer erhöhten Sensitivität gegenüber Spannungsrelaxationsrissen bedarf dieser Stahl allerdings einer äußerst sorgfältigen schweißtechnischen Verarbeitung. Bisherige Untersuchungen zur Rissentstehung in warmfesten Stählen konzentrierten sich vorrangig auf thermische und metallurgische Einflussfaktoren, bieten jedoch nur wenige Erkenntnisse zum Einfluss des Schweißprozesses auf die Rissbildung beim Spannungsarmglühen unter Berücksichtigung realitätsnaher Fertigungsbedingungen.
Im ersten Teil wurde zunächst der Einfluss der Wärmeführung auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften anhand von frei schrumpfenden Laborproben untersucht. Während sich die Wärmeführung wesentlich auf die Schweißnahtstruktur auswirkte, war ein signifikanter Effekt auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften nicht nachweisbar. Auch traten infolge der Wärmenachbehandlung der frei schrumpfend geschweißten Proben keine Spannungsrelaxationsrisse auf.
Der zweite Teil umfasste die realitätsnahe Abbildung der Fertigungsbedingungen im petrochemischen Reaktorbau. Zu diesem Zweck wurden die konstruktiven Randbedingungen während des Vorwärmens, Schweißens, des Wasserstoffarmglühens und der abschließenden Wärmenachbehandlung realitätsnah in einer speziellen 3-D-Prüfanlage zur Simulation von Bauteilschweißungen abgebildet. Unter konstruktiver Schrumpfbehinderung gelang der Nachweis der unterschiedlichen Wirkung von Vorwärm- / Zwischenlagentemperatur und Streckenenergie auf die resultierenden Kräfte, Momente und Spannungen. Die Gesamtreaktionsspannung nach dem Schweißen wurde innerhalb des untersuchten Parameterfeldes maßgeblich durch die Streckenenergie beeinflusst.
Ein möglichst geringer Gesamtwärmeeintrag hat die niedrigste Bauteilbeanspruchung zur Folge. Während der Wärmenachbehandlung kam es in allen Versuchen zu Spannungsrelaxationsrissen. Deren kumulierte Länge korrelierte mit den ermittelten schweißbedingten Reaktionsspannungen.
Die Detektion der Risse während der Wärmenachbehandlung im Bauteilversuch erfolgte erstmalig in-situ mittels Schallemissionsanalyse. Die Rissinitiierung fand nachweislich im Temperaturbereich von 300 °C bis 500 °C statt. Die Reaktionsspannungen nach der Wärmenachbehandlung lagen unabhängig von der Ausgangsbelastung auf einem vergleichbaren Niveau. Die Zähigkeit der Schweißverbindung nahm klar gegenüber den frei schrumpfend geschweißten Proben ab.
Mittels REM- und TEM-Analysen an vergleichbaren belasteten und unbelasteten Proben wurde eine beschleunigte Alterung, durch das frühzeitige Ausscheiden von Sonderkarbiden während der Wärmenachbehandlung unter definierter Einspannung (d. h. unter Belastung), nachgewiesen. Die verstärkte Korngrenzensegregation korrelierte mit der signifikanten Abnahme der Kerbschlagarbeit der unter Einspannung geschweißten Proben.
Plasma-Transferred-Arc (PTA) welding is a process that enables high deposition rates, but also causes increased thermal load on the component. Laser metal deposition (LMD) welding, on the other hand, reaches a high level of precision and thus achieves comparatively low deposition rates, which can lead to high processing costs. Combining laser and arc energy aims to exploit the respective advantages of both technologies. In this study, a novel approach of this process combination is presented using a PTA system and a 2 kW disk laser. The energy sources are combined in a common process zone as a high-speed plasma laser cladding technology (HPLC), which achieves process speeds of 10 m/min at deposition rates of 6.6 kg/h and an energy per unit length of 39 J/mm.
Resistance spot welding (RSW) is widely used in the automotive industry
as the main joining method. Generally, an automotive body contains
around 2000 to 5000 spot welds. Therefore, it is of decisive importance to characterize the mechanical properties of these areas for the further optimization and improvement of an automotive body structure. The present paper aims to introduce a novel method to investigate the mechanical properties and microstructure of the resistance spot weldment of DP1000 sheet steel. In this method, the microstructure of RSW of two sheets was reproduced on one sheet and on a bigger area by changing of the welding parameters, e. g. welding current, welding time, electrode force and type. Then, tensile tests in combination with digital Image correlation (DIC) measurement were performed on the notched tensile specimens to determine the mechanical properties of the weld metal.
The notch must be made on the welded tensile specimen to force the fracture and elongation on the weld metal, enabling the characterization of its properties. Additionally, the parameters of a nonlinear isotropic material model can be obtained and verified by the simulation of the tensile specimens. The parameters obtained show that the strength of DP1000 steel and the velocity of dislocations for reaching the Maximum value of strain hardening, are significantly increased after RSW. The effect of sample geometry and microstructural inhomogeneity of the welded joint on the constitutive property of the weld metal are presented and discussed.
For metal-based additive manufacturing, sensors and measuring systems for monitoring of the energy source, the build volume, the melt pool and the component geometry are already commercially available. Further methods of optics, spectroscopy and non-destructive testing are described in the literature as suitable for in-situ application, but there are only a few reports on practical implementations.
Therefore, a new BAM project aims to develop process monitoring methods for the in-situ evaluation of the quality of additively manufactured metal components. In addition to passive and active thermography, this includes optical tomography, optical emission and absorption spectroscopy, eddy current testing, laminography, X-ray backscattering and photoacoustic methods. These methods are used in additive manufacturing systems for selective laser melting, laser metal deposition and wire arc additive manufacturing. To handle the sometimes huge amounts of data, algorithms for efficient preprocessing are developed and characteristics of the in-situ data are extracted and correlated to defects and inhomogeneities, which are determined using reference methods such as computer tomography and metallography. This process monitoring and fusion of data of different measurement techniques should result in a significant reduction of costly and time-consuming, destructive or non-destructive tests after the production of the component and at the same time reduce the production of scrap.
Here, first results of simultaneous measurements of optical emission spectroscopy and thermography during the laser metal deposition process using 316L as building material are presented. Temperature values are extracted from spectroscopic data by fitting of blackbody emission spectra to the experimental data and compared with results from a thermographic camera. Measurements with and without powder flow reveal significant differences between welding at a pristine metal surface and previously melted positions on the build plate, illustrating the significant influence of the partial oxidation of the surface during the first welding process on subsequent welding. The measurement equipment can either be mounted stationary or following the laser path. While first results were obtained in the stationary mode, future applications for online monitoring of the build of whole parts in the mobile mode are planned.
This research was funded by BAM within the focus area Material.
The development of hydrogen technologies is a key strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emission worldwide. Power-to-Gas is a challenging solution, in which hydrogen and methane can be used in mobility, industry, heat supply and electricity generation applications. This presentation deals with the tribological behaviour of polymer materials in hydrogen and methane, both in gas and in liquefied form.
The development of hydrogen technologies is a key strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emission worldwide. Power-to-Gas is a challenging solution, in which hydrogen and methane can be used in mobility, industry, heat supply and electricity generation applications. This presentation deals with the tribological behaviour of polymer materials in hydrogen and methane, both in gas and in liquefied form.
Der Implant-Test nach ISO 17642-3 gehört zur Gruppe der fremdbeanspruchten Kaltrisstests, bei dem eine äußere Beanspruchung auf einen zylindrischen Stab (Implant-Probe) definiert aufgebracht wird. Mit dieser Kaltrissprüfung wurde vergleichende Analysen zur Kaltrissempfindlichkeit der modernen hochfesten Feinkornbaustähle S960MC und S960QL durchgeführt.