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Effect of cooling rate on microstructure and properties of microalloyed HSLA steel weld metals
(2015)
Two high strength Nb/Ti microalloyed S690QL steels were welded with identical filler material, varying welding parameters to obtain three cooling rates: slow, medium and fast cooling. As cooling rate increased, the predominantly acicular ferrite in Nb weld metal (WM) is substituted by bainite, with a consequence of obvious hardness increase, but in Ti WM, no great variation of acicular ferrite at all cooling rates contributed to little increment of hardness. The transition between bainite and acicular ferrite has been analysed from the point view of inclusions characteristics, chemical composition and cooling rate. Excellent Charpy toughness at 233 K was obtained with acicular ferrite as predominantly microstructure. Even with bainite weld of high hardness, the toughness was nearly enough to fulfill the minimal requirements. WM for Ti steel showed to be markedly less sensitive to the variations of cooling rate than that for Nb steel.
The roles of microalloying niobium, titanium and vanadium for controlling austenite grain growth, microstructure evolution and hardness were investigated at different simulated heat affected zones (HAZ) for high strength low alloy (HSLA) S690QL steel. High resolution FEG-SEM has been used to characterize fine bainitic ferrite, martensite and nanosized second phases at simulated coarse and fine grain HAZs. It was found that for Ti bearing steel (Ti/N ratio is 2) austenite grain had the slowest growth rate due to the presence of most stable TiN. The fine cuboidal particles promoted intragranular acicular ferrite (IGF) formation. Nb bearing steel exhibited relatively weaker grain growth retardation compared with titanium bearing steels and a mixed microstructure of bainite and martensite was present for all simulated HAZs. IGF existed at coarse grain HAZ of Ti+V bearing steel but it was totally replaced by bainite at fine grain HAZs. Hardness result was closely related to the morphology of bainitic ferrite, intragranular ferrite and second phases within ferrite. The microstructure and hardness results of different simulated HAZs were in good agreement with welded experimental results.
Three high-strength Nb-, Ti- and Ti + Vmicroalloyed S690QL steels were welded to investigate the formation of softened HAZ and its impact on tensile properties. The welding was performed with three levels of heat input to produce softened zones with different characteristics (softening width, minimum hardness and softening ratio), and then, further tensile tests were done to study their influence on weld performance. The results showed that Ti bearing steel exhibited the lowest resistance to softening with the presence of largest soften width and lowest hardness value, causing final tensile failure occurred at softened HAZ. The metallurgical reason for the lower hardness is the high fraction of coarse ferrite. Nb- and Ti + V-bearing steels suffered moderate softening, due to high hardenability with addition of Mo, Nb and V, but the softening effect did not remarkably influence the tensile properties of these two steels.
Three high-strength Nb-,.Ti- and Ti+ V-bearing S690QL steels were welded to investigate and compare the effects of microalloy addition on heat-affected zone (HAZ) toughness. Charpy V notch impact tests from three microalloyed welds under different cooling rates have been performed. Fractographic examination shows that several factors, including large-sized grain, upper bainite or hard second phase, interact to determine brittle fracture and impaired toughness in Nb-bearing weld with high heat input. In contrast to this reduced toughness, Ti-bearing welds exhibits satisfied toughness regardless of at fast or slow cooling. This is attributed to its limited austenite grain and refines favorable intragranular acicular ferrite structure. Moreover, in the case of such refined structure as matrix, TiN particles are found to be irrelevant to the facture process. The crystallographic results also confirm that high-angle boundaries between fine ferrites plates provide effective barriers for crack propagation and contribute to improved toughness.
The importance of high-temperature materials made of iron aluminides (FeAl) has been increasing in light weight applications, e.g., airplane turbines, due to the high material’s specific strength. However, the highly economic production by means of permanent mold casting involves special microstructures for Fe26Al4Mo0.5Ti1B alloy components leading to difficult machinability for subsequent finishing milling and low surface qualities. Major effects of tool and machining parameter variation incorporating ultrasonic assistance on the milling process and surface integrity are shown. Loads for tool and component surface are significantly adjustable to enable an economic process chain regarding the surface integrity of safety-relevant components.
Intermetallische Werkstoffe werden für Hochtemperaturanwendungen immer wichtiger. Insbesondere Aluminide mit hohen spezifischen Festigkeiten haben ein großes Potenzial für Leichtbauanwendungen, z. B. werden Titanaluminide bereits in Flugzeugturbinen eingesetzt. Ökonomische und ökologische Aspekte sind die treibende Kraft zur Substitution konventioneller Legierungen, z. B. Nickelbasislegierungen, die eine wesentlich höhere Kostenintensität und ein höheres Gewichts-Festigkeits-Verhältnis aufweisen. Insbesondere Eisenaluminide (FeAl) sind aufgrund guter mechanischer Eigenschaften und der guten Verfügbarkeit der wichtigsten Hauptlegierungselemente attraktiv. Speziell entwickelte FeAl-Legierungskonzepte ermöglichen eine wirtschaftliche Produktion im Kokillenguss, bei der die Erstarrung der Schmelze spezielle komplexe Gefüge ermöglicht, um die hohen thermischen und mechanischen Eigenschaften durch eine hohe Anzahl von harten Ausscheidungen entlang der Korngrenzen zu erreichen. Zu diesen Eigenschaften gehört aber auch, dass notwendige Bearbeitungsschritte, wie das Schlichtfräsen, zur Erzielung komplexer Endkonturen, zu vorzeitigem Werkzeugverschleiß und geringen Oberflächengüten führen. Für das finale FeAl-Bauteil ist eine hohe Oberflächenintegrität insbesondere in sicherheitsrelevanten Anwendungen in der Luftfahrt oder im Energiebereich erforderlich. Aus diesem Grund konzentriert sich die vorliegende Untersuchung auf die Mechanismen und die Minimierung des Werkzeugverschleißes und die Auswirkungen auf die Oberfläche eines in Kokille vergossenen FeAl-Bauteils. Neben den Optimierungen des Fräsprozesses und der Werkzeugparameter (Geometrie, Material) wird ein modernes hybrides Bearbeitungsverfahren, das ultra-schallunterstützte Fräsen (USAM), eingesetzt, bei dem eine Überlagerung mit einer hochfrequenten Schwingung des rotierenden Werkzeugs erzeugt wird. Analysen der Kräfte und Temperaturen im Fräsprozess, der Verschleißerscheinungen am Werkzeug und der Oberflächenintegrität zeigen positive Auswirkungen durch USAM. Darüber hinaus wird eine valide Grundlage für die Optimierung des Werkzeugs und des Fräsprozesses geschaffen, um eine hohe Oberflächenintegrität (z. B. Verringerung von Zugeigenspannungen und Defekten) und eine längere Werkzeuglebensdauer zu gewährleisten, die zukünftig eine wirtschaftliche Herstellung von FeAl-Bauteilen ermöglicht.
Wear behavior of innovative niobium carbide cutting tools in ultrasonic-assisted finishing milling
(2023)
The resources of niobium exceed the ones of tungsten by an order of magnitude. With 92%, Brazil is today the main global producer of niobium. Hence, niobium carbides (NbC) are a sustainable and economic alternative to conventionally used cutting materials, especially tungsten carbides (WC). Moreover, NbC can be used in Ni alloy matrix and thus offer significant advantages by substituting WC in Co matrix as cutting materials in terms of health risks and raw material price and supply risk. Based on recent studies which found an increased performance of NbC compared to WC cutting tools in machining higher strength steels, the composition NbC12Ni4Mo4VC was chosen for finish machining of a high-strength steel S960QL in this study. The experiments were carried out on an ultrasonic-assisted 5-axis milling machine using NbC tools specially made to benchmark them with commercially available coated WC cutting inserts. In addition, the influence of a coating system for the NbC inserts is tested and evaluated for its performance in the cutting process. Tool wear and cutting force analyses are implied to identify optimal parameter combinations as well as tool properties for the novel NbC tool. Together with the oscillation of ultrasonic-assisted milling, the loads on the component surface and the tool can be reduced and the wear behavior of the novel NbC tool can be refined. These milling tests are accompanied by standardized wear tests, i.e., pin-on-disc, between the aforementioned material combinations, and the results are correlated with each other. Finally, the behavior when using hard-to-cut materials such as Ni alloys, or innovative materials such as iron aluminide is also being tested, as these are constantly in the focus of machining optimization. With this strategy, comprehensive knowledge is achievable for future efficient application of NbC for milling tools, which have already been researched for decades using WC.
Die Verwendung hochfester Feinkornbaustähle hat für viele Anwendungen des Stahlbaus ein großes Potenzial für gewichtsoptimierte, effiziente Strukturen mit ho-her mechanischer Beanspruchbarkeit. Weitere Zugewinne an Effizienz sind durch generative Fertigungsschritte sowie bionische Bauweisen erzielbar. Hierzu stehen bereits kommerzielle hochfeste drahtförmige Zusatzwerkstoffe für formgebendes MSG-Schweißen zur Verfügung. Dem Einsatz stehen noch fehlende quantitative Aussagen zu den fertigungsbedingten Beanspruchungen und der Bauteilsicherheit während Herstellung und Betrieb im Wege. Dies betrifft insbesondere prozess- sowie materialbedingte Einflüsse und die konstruktive Schrumpfbehinderung verbunden mit der Ausbildung hoher Zugeigenspannungen und damit zusammenhängenden Kaltrissbildung.
Hierfür wurden im Projekt detaillierte und anwenderbezogene Kenntnisse zu den komplexen Wechselwirkungen zwischen Schweißprozess und Wärmeführung während der Fertigung, der metallurgischen Vorgänge und insbesondere der vorliegenden konstruktiven Einflüsse auf die entstehenden Eigenspannungen erarbeitet, um ein frühzeitiges Bauteilversagen aufgrund eines hohen fertigungsbedingten Beanspruchungsniveaus bis hin zu einer Rissbildung während der Fertigung sicher zu vermeiden. Gleichzeitig wurden die Einflüsse auf die mechanisch-technologischen Gütewerte systematisch analysiert. Zudem wurden die Auswirkungen trennender Verfahren durch Entfernen der Substratplatte sowie durch die spanende Bearbeitung der Vorformlinge zu Endbauteilgeometrien geklärt, da diese unmittelbar den Eigenspannungszustand beeinflussen und deutlichen Verzug der Bauteile auslösen.
Für das generative Schweißen konnten Verarbeitungsempfehlungen sowie Normenvorgaben erarbeitet werden. Dies hilft insbesondere KMU eine wirtschaftliche, beanspruchungsgerechte und risssichere generative Fertigung von Bauteilen aus hochfesten Feinkornbaustählen zu ermöglichen.
WAAM process influences on local microstructure and residual stresses in high-strength steels
(2021)
High-strength fine-grain structural steels have great potential for weight optimization of many modern engineering structures. Efficient manufacturing can be achieved here above all by Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM). First commercial high-strength welding consumables for WAAM are already available. Due to a lack of knowledge and guidelines for the industry regarding welding residual stresses and component safety in manufacturing and operation, their application is still severely limited. Residual stresses play a crucial role here, as the special microstructure of high-strength steels is sensitive to cold cracking.
For this reason, process- and material-related influences, as well as the design effects on residual stress formation, are being investigated in a project funded by the AiF (FOSTA P1380/IGF 21162 BG). This study focuses on determining the interactions between heat control during WAAM process, resulting hardness, microstructure, and residual stresses, analyzed by X-ray diffraction. Welding experiments using geometrically similar AM specimens show that, with regard to the heat input, the energy per unit length in particular leads to significantly affected cooling times and microstructures and causes pronounced localized effects in terms of residual stresses in the upper weld beads.
Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) enables the efficient production of weight-optimized modern engineering structures. Further increases in efficiency can be achieved by using high-strength structural steels. Commercial welding consumables for WAAM are already available on the market. Lack of knowledge and guidelines regarding welding residual stress and component safety during production and operation leads to severely limited use for industry applications. The sensitive microstructure of high-strength steels carries a high risk of cold cracking; therefore, residual stresses play a crucial role. For this reason, the influences of the material, the WAAM process, and the design on the formation of residual stresses and the risk of cold cracking are being investigated. The material used has a yield strength of over 800 MPa. This strength is adjusted via solid solution strengthening and a martensitic phase transformation. The volume expansion associated with martensite formation has a significant influence on the residual stresses. The focus of the present investigation is on the additive welding parameters and component design on their influence on hardness and residual stresses, which are analyzed by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD). Reference specimens (hollow cuboids) are welded fully automated with a systematic variation of heat control and design. Welding parameters and AM geometry are correlated with the resulting microstructure, hardness, and residual stress state. Increased heat input leads to lower tensile residual stresses which causes unfavorable microstructure and mechanical properties. The component design affects heat dissipation conditions and the intensity of restraint during welding and has a significant influence on the residual stress.