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Residual stresses Analysis in Additively Manufactured alloys using neutron diffraction (L-PBF)
(2023)
An overview of recent progress at BAM of residual stress analysis in additively manufactured, in particular Laser Powder Bed Fusion of metallics materials, using neutron diffraction will be presented. This will cover important topics of the stress-free reference, the diffraction elastic moduli and principal stress determination.
Additive manufacturing processes offer extensive advantages for the design freedom of structures through layer-by-layer production. This enables high weight savings as well as the integration of functions such as cooling channels. This technology thus offers great potential to contribute to a sustainable future. The pioneer among these manufacturing processes is the powder bed fusion of metals with laser beams (PBF-LB/M). This process is characterised by high laser scanning speeds and highly localised heat input, which have a strong effect on the microstructure and thus also on the mechanical properties. For example, the austenitic steel 316L exhibits a cellular structure at the subgrain level. This microstructure feature leads to higher yield strengths and comparable ductility to conventionally processed 316L. In addition to the traditional applications of 316L steel in the petrochemical and nuclear industries, this enables new applications such as medical stents or bipolar plates for fuel cells with proton exchange membranes. However, the layer-by-layer production with high scanning speeds and localised heat input induces cooling rates in the order of 106 K.s-1. The large temperature gradients and the shrinkage restraints of each weld bead and layer lead to the development of complex residual stress fields. These reduce the material performance and can even lead to premature failure. Thus, the fatigue properties are severely affected by rapid crack growth or prematurely developing cracks. Furthermore, specimens may warp during PBF-LB/M or immediately when the components are separated from the build plate. Therefore, residual stress is one of the main disadvantages of PBF-LB/M, making it difficult for this technology to be more widely accepted in the industry. Based on the current state of the literature, the procedure for determining residual stress employing diffraction methods, the influence of the component geometry, as well as the inter-layertime (ILT) on residual stress and, lastly, suitable heat treatment strategies for relaxing residual stress in PBF-LB/M/316L, were identified as insufficiently researched areas.
Determining residual stress is a major challenge. X-ray and neutron diffraction are particularly suitable for filigree structures, which can preferably be produced using PBF-LB/M. Here, the microscopic strain of the lattice planes is used to calculate the macroscopic residual stress. These methods are nondestructive and allow the spatial resolution of the bi-axial and tri-axial residual stress. In the present work, in-situ neutron diffraction tensile tests were performed to analyse the micromechanical behaviour of PBF-LB/M/316L. The suitability of the lattice planes for calculating the macroscopic residual stress was investigated. The (311) lattice plane was found to be the best option for determining the macroscopic residual stress in PBF-LB/M/316L. Furthermore, it was shown that the Kröner model can be used to calculate the X-ray diffraction constants despite the texture. Currently, both aspects are common practices in the determination of residual stress. The results presented here support the validity of this approach and increase the confidence in the experimentally determined residual stress, which has a positive effect on the assessment of quality concerning the safety of a component manufactured by PBF-LB/M.
The geometry of a structure manufactured by PBF-LB/M determines the component stiffness and influences the thermal gradients during manufacture and ultimately the residual stress. The effect of smaller or larger dimensions (larger than 10 mm) on the residual stress is rarely considered. To investigate this aspect, representative test specimens with different thicknesses and lengths were produced. Hence, the influence of the geometry i.e., component stiffness on the residual stress was evaluated. The residual stress was determined using X-ray and neutron diffraction. The analysis of the residual stress showed that an increase in thickness leads to overall higher residual stress. In addition, it was shown that increasing the sample dimension leads to smaller residual stress gradients. Above a threshold value of a few millimetres, no significant change in the residual stress was observed.
The ILT is inherent in every PBF-LB/M construction job and influences the thermal gradients during production and thus the residual stress. A change in wall thickness in a geometrically complex structure or a variation in the number of specimens in the construction process leads directly to a change in the ILT. To simulate this, specimens with different ILT were produced. The residual stress was determined by X-ray and neutron diffraction. The use of a short ILT resulted in higher surface residual stress, but lower volume residual stress. Here, the surface residual stress and the residual stress in the volume showed contrary behaviour. This was attributed to the complex heat conduction during the process, as shown by the thermographic measurements.
To avoid distortion of the specimens or real components upon separation from the build plate or during post-processing steps, stress relief annealing is usually performed after the PBF-LB/M process. Based on standards for heat treatment of welded austenitic steels, heat treatments were performed at low (450 °C for four hours) and high (800 °C and 900 °C for one hour) temperatures. The results show that the heat treatment at 450 °C relaxed the residual stress by only 5 %. This low relaxation is due to the stability of the cell structures. The high-temperature heat treatment showed that 900 °C is required to dissolve the cell structure and achieve a relaxation of about 85 %. This result is in good agreement with the standards for stress relief annealing of welded austenitic steels.
Laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB/M) of metallic alloys is a layer wise additive manufacturing process which provides significant scope for more efficient designs of components, benefiting performance and weight, leading to efficiency improvements for various sectors of industry. However, to benefit from these design freedoms, knowledge of the high produced induced residual stress and mechanical property anisotropy associated with the unique microstructures is critical. X-ray and neutron diffraction are considered the benchmark for non-destructive characterization of surface and bulk internal residual stress. The latter, characterized by the high penetration power in most engineering alloys, allows for the use of diffraction angle close to 90° enabling a near cubic sampling volume to be specified. However, the complex microstructures of columnar growth with inherent crystallographic texture typically produced during PBF-LB/M of metallics present significant challenges to the assumptions typically required for time efficient determination of residual stress. These challenges include the selection of an appropriate set of diffraction elastic constants and a representative strain-free reference for the material of interest. In this presentation advancements in the field of diffraction-based residual stress analysis of L-PBF Inconel 718 will be presented. The choice of an appropriate set of diffraction-elastic constants depending on the underlying microstructure will be described.
Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies are experiencing an exceedingly rapid growth, driven by their potential through layer wise deposition for transformational improvements of engineering design, leading to efficiency and performance improvements. Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) is an Additive Manufacturing (AM) method which permits the fabrication of complex structures that cannot otherwise be produced via conventional subtractive manufacturing methods. Nevertheless, the rapid cooling rates associated with this process results in the formation of significant and complex residual stress (RS) fields. A large body of both experimental and simulation research has been dedicated in recent years to the control and mitigation of RS in AM. In order to validate simulations with the end goal of being able to model the residual stress state in AM components and to devise strategies for their reduction during manufacturing, experimental methods need to be able to accurately determine 3D residual stresses fields in complex geometries. Several destructive and non-destructive methods can be used to analyze the RS state, the choice of which depends on the geometry and the information required. Diffraction-based methods using penetrating neutron and synchrotron X-rays at large scale facilities offer the possibility to non-destructively spatially resolve both surface and bulk residual stresses in complex components and track their changes following applied thermal or mechanical loads. This presentation will overview the success stories of using large scale facilities by the BAM for the characterization of residual stresses in additively manufactured metallic alloys. In particular, the study of the influence of process parameters on the residual stress state and the relaxation of these stresses through heat treatment will be presented. However there remains challenges to overcome particularly of the hypotheses underlying the experimental determination of residual stresses, which will be discussed.
Metal Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies such as Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) enable the fabrication of complex structures, giving rise to potential improvements in component and manufacturing efficiency. However, the processes are typically characterized by the generation of high magnitude residual stress (RS) which can have detrimental consequences for subsequent applications. Therefore, the characterization of these RS fields and the understanding of their formation and mitigation through optimized processing is crucial for the wider uptake of the technology. Due to the potential complex nature and high value of components manufactured by LPBF, it is important to have suitable characterisation methods which can determine the spatial variations of RS in a non-destructive manner. Neutron diffraction is considered to be the best suited for these requirements. However, the microstructures developed in the complex thermal cycles experience in the production can pose challenges to the ND method for RS analysis. The BAM has conducted significant research over the past years to overcome these obstacles, enabling higher confidence in the RS determined in LPBF materials by neutron diffraction. This contribution will overview some of these advancements made recently at European neutron sources including on Stress-Spec at FRM2/MLZ.
As opposed to reviewing results on experimental determination of residual stress by diffraction, this paper discusses the open issues when dealing with residual stress determination in additive manufactured parts, in particular those manufactured with laser powder bed fusion techniques. Three points are addressed in detail: (a) the proper determination of the strain-free reference d0, (b) the problem of the determination of the principal axes, and (c) the use of the correct diffraction elastic constants. It is shown that all methods to determine the strain-free reference d0 suffer from caveats, and care must be taken in evaluating the most suitable for the problem being tackled. In addition, it is shown that, in some systems, the principal axes do correspond to the geometrical axes of the specimen, but this needs to be systematically checked, especially in the case of uni- or bidirectional hatching strategies. Finally, the need to experimentally determine the proper diffraction elastic constants is underlined, especially in the case of strongly textured specimens, which again depends on the deposition strategy.
Residual stresses in Laser Beam Melting (LBM) – Critical Review and outlook of activities at BAM
(2019)
Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies have experienced an exceedingly rapid growth, which is coupled with the knowledge about the resulting material properties and performance. In particular, residual stress (RS) was soon recognized as an important issue in AM parts, such that parts are usually subjected to a post build-heat-treated. Significant effort has been spent on simulations of RS in AM, especially using finite element methods. As a consequence, the experimental determination of RS has thereby become increasingly important as a validation tool for simulations, as well as a method for assessing the influence of process parameters. In particular, diffraction methods, which are fundamentally non-destructive, offer enormous possibilities to gain knowledge on the residual stress state in real components, since synchrotron radiation and neutrons can penetrate even heavy metals up to several millimeters or centimeters, respectively. Indeed, significant progress has been achieved, in the understanding of the origins of the RS fields as a function of process parameters, as well as their stability under thermal and/or mechanical exposure.
In this paper, a few success stories will be outlined. It will be shown how the determination of RS in metallic parts (with the focus on those produced by laser powder bed fusion) has even revealed that process parameters that were previously considered unimportant (e.g. the position and orientation on the base plate) play a major role in the onset of residual stress accumulation.
However, while RS characterization is starting to be considered in the component design, deposition strategy (e.g. build plate temperature), and even in the definition of the relevant metric to assess the quality of a part, much is still to be investigates about the hypotheses underlying its experimental determination. Therefore, some aspects to be aware of, or even those which to date are unclear, will also be discussed. These include the determination of the stress-free reference and of the principal axes of stress. All of these aspects will lead towards a comprehensive understanding of the process-structure-performance relationships in AM materials and parts.
Laser based Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) is an additive manufacturing technique that has been continuously developed in the past years. It offers unparalleled design freedom and the resulting mechanical properties match, in some cases even exceed, those of materials processed by conventional manufacturing techniques. Nonetheless the process is prone to create Residual Stresses (RS) resulting from the sequential melting and solidification of the material. RS can reduce load bearing capacity and generate unwanted distortions thus diminishing the potential of L-PBF. This research activity aimed at characterizing the RS state in Inconel 718 L-PBF specimens using multiple diffraction methods. The microstructure as well as the surface and bulk residual stresses were investigated. The RS analysis was performed using X-ray, synchrotron and neutron diffraction methods to provide information at different depths within the specimen. The measurements were performed at the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und –prüfung (BAM), the EDDI beamline at BESSY II synchrotron and E3 line at BER II neutron reactor of the Helmholtz-Zentrum für Materialien und Energie (HZB) Berlin. The results revealed a depth depending RS state. The longitudinal and transverse stress components measured by X-ray and synchrotron at the surface agree well, exhibiting stress values around the yield strength of the material. In addition, synchrotron mapping showed gradients along the width and length of the sample for the longitudinal and transverse stress components. Lower RS values compared to surface RS were measured in the bulk of the material using neutron diffraction. The longitudinal stress component in the bulk was tensile and gradually decreased towards the edge of the specimen. The normal component however did not change significantly along the specimen dimensions and was of compressive nature. The transversal component was almost negligible. The results indicate that a stress re-distribution takes place during the deposition of the consecutive layers, which has to be further investigated.
Residual stresses in Laser Beam Melting (LBM) – Critical Review and outlook of activities at BAM
(2019)
Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies have experienced an exceedingly rapid growth, which is coupled with the knowledge about the resulting material properties and performance. In particular, residual stress (RS) was soon recognized as an important issue in AM parts, such that parts are usually subjected to a post build-heat-treated. Significant effort has been spent on simulations of RS in AM, especially using finite element methods. As a consequence, the experimental determination of RS has thereby become increasingly important as a validation tool for simulations, as well as a method for assessing the influence of process parameters. In particular, diffraction methods, which are fundamentally non-destructive, offer enormous possibilities to gain knowledge on the residual stress state in real components, since synchrotron radiation and neutrons can penetrate even heavy metals up to several millimeters or centimeters, respectively. Indeed, significant progress has been achieved, in the understanding of the origins of the RS fields as a function of process parameters, as well as their stability under thermal and/or mechanical exposure.
In this paper, a few success stories will be outlined. It will be shown how the determination of RS in metallic parts (with the focus on those produced by laser powder bed fusion) has even revealed that process parameters that were previously considered unimportant (e.g. the position and orientation on the base plate) play a major role in the onset of residual stress accumulation.
However, while RS characterization is starting to be considered in the component design, deposition strategy (e.g. build plate temperature), and even in the definition of the relevant metric to assess the quality of a part, much is still to be investigates about the hypotheses underlying its experimental determination. Therefore, some aspects to be aware of, or even those which to date are unclear, will also be discussed. These include the determination of the stress-free reference and of the principal axes of stress. All of these aspects will lead towards a comprehensive understanding of the process-structure-performance relationships in AM materials and parts.