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Alloy 36 (1.3912) is an alloy with 36% nickel and 64% iron and is generally classified as a difficult-to-cut material. Increasingly complex structures and the optimization of resource efficiency are making additive manufacturing (AM) more and more attractive for the manufacture or repair of components. Subsequent machining of AM components is unavoidable for its final contour. By using modern, hybrid machining processes, e.g., ultrasonic-assisted milling (US), it is possible to improve the cutting situation regarding the resulting surface integrity as well as the cutting force. Part I deals with the influence of the alloying elements Ti, Zr, and Hf on the microstructure and the hardness of the initial alloy 36. Part II focusses on the effect of the alloy modifications and the ultrasonic assistance on machinability as well as on the surface integrity after finish-milling. The results show a highly significant influence of the ultrasonic assistance. The cutting force during the US is reduced by over 50% and the roughness of approx. 50% compared to conventional milling (CM) for all materials investigated. Moreover, the US causes a defect-free surface and induces near-surface compressive residual stresses. CM leads to a near-surface stress state of approx. 0 MPa.
Alloy 36 (1.3912), also known as “Invar,” is an alloy with 36% nickel. The alloy has a remarkably low thermal expansion coefficient in certain temperature ranges. This peculiarity is called the invar effect, which was discovered in 1896 by the Swiss physicist Charles Édouard Guillaume. Therefore, it is used in applications in which dimensional stability is critical, such as molding tools for composite materials in aerospace, automotive applications, or liquified natural gas (LNG) cargo tanks. Moreover, increasingly complex structures and the optimization of resource efficiency also require additive manufacturing steps for the production or repair of components. Additively manufactured components have a heterogeneous microstructure and anisotropic mechanical properties. In addition, the manufactured components require subsequent machining surface finishing, like finish milling, to achieve their final contour. Nickel iron alloys are difficult to machine. Additionally, inhomogeneous microstructure may lead to unstable cutting forces and conditions. In part I of this investigation, the initial alloy 36 is modified with the elements Ti, Zr, and Hf up to a maximum of 0.33 wt.-%. The influence of the modification elements on the microstructure as well as on the hardness of the AM components is examined. Furthermore, one modification is applied to metal arc welding process and investigated. Part II focuses on the effect of the alloy modifications on machinability as well as on the surface integrity of plasma-transferred-arc-welded (PTA) and finish milled invar components.
Welded joints show large variation of the weld toe geometry along the weld seam, which is one important reason for the comparably large scatter in fatigue life. Therefore, it is crucial to take the local geometry at the weld toe into account, to reduce the conservatism in fatigue assessment of welded joints. This study is based on the IBESS procedure for the calculation of the fatigue strength, whereby the evaluation of local geometrical parameters is carried out by means of 3D surface scans. The approach is validated against 26 fatigue test series. The fatigue life is in general overpredicted, whereas good agreement is achieved for high stress ratio (R = 0.5). A sensitivity analysis conducted with IBESS shows that weld toe radii ρ < 2 mm and flank angle α < 30° have a significant influence on the calculated fatigue strength. In contrast to this, no strong correlation between ρ and the fatigue strength was determined experimentally in this study.
As onshore installation capacity is limited, the increase in the number of offshore wind turbines (OWT) is a major goal. In that connection, the OWTs continuously increase in size and weight and demand adequate foundations concepts like monopiles or tripods. These components are typically manufactured from welded mild steel plates with thickness up to 200 mm. The predominant welding technique is submerged arc welding (SAW). In accordance with the standards, the occurrence of hydrogen-assisted cracking is anticipated by either a minimum waiting time (MWT, before non-destructive testing of the welded joint is allowed) at ambient or a hydrogen removal heat treatment (HRHT) at elevated temperatures. The effectiveness of both can be estimated by calculation of the diffusion time, i.e., diffusion coefficients. In this study, these coefficients are obtained for the first time for a thick-walled S420G2+M offshore steel grade and its multi-layer SAW joint. The electrochemical permeation technique at ambient temperature is used for the determination of diffusion coefficients for both the base material and the weld metal. The coefficients are within a range of 1025 to 1024 mm2/s (whereas the weld metal had the lowest) and are used for an analytical and numerical calculation of the hydrogen diffusion and the related MWT. The results showed that long MWT can occur, which would be necessary to significantly decrease the hydrogen concentration. Weld metal diffusion coefficients at elevated temperatures were calculated from hydrogen desorption experiments by carrier gas hot extraction. They are within a range of 1023 mm2/s and used for the characterization of a HRHT dwell-time. The analytical calculation shows the same tendency of long necessary times also at elevated temperatures. That means the necessary time is strongly influenced by the considered plate thickness and the estimation of any MWT/HRHT via diffusion coefficients should be critically discussed.
Offshore wind turbines continuously increase in size and weight and demand adequate offshore foundations concepts like monopiles, tripods, or jackets. These components are typically constructed using submerged arc welding (SAW) with high-strength thick steel plates like the S420ML. During welding, the occurrence of delayed hydrogen-assisted cracking (HAC) must be anticipated. HAC is a critical combination of the local hydrogen concentration within a susceptible microstructure under certain mechanical load, i.e., the occurring (welding) residual stresses. The welding sequence of the thick-walled plates complicates the residual stress distribution due to the necessary repeated thermal cycling, i.e., welding seam/layer deposition to fill the joint. For that purpose, SAW with two-wire-technique was used to weld a specially designed and prototype-like mock-up of a real component with a thickness of 50 mm, filled with over 20 passes and a seam length of 1000 mm. Additional welded stiffeners simulated the effect of a high restraint, to achieve critical HAC conditions. The necessity of a minimum waiting time (MWT) before the NDT can be conducted (to exclude HAC) was critically verified by the application of ultrasonic testing of the welded joint at different time-steps of the NDT of up to 48 h after the completion welding. The residual stresses were determined by a robot XRD goniometer. Tensile residual stresses up to the yield limit are found both in the weld metal and in the heat-affected zone. Numerical modeling allowed the qualitative estimation of the hydrogen diffusion in the weld. No noticeable HAC occurrence was identified and confirms the high cracking resistance of the investigated material. Finally, the applicability of the MWT concept should be critically discussed.
Determination of residual stress evolution during repair welding of high-strength steel components
(2022)
During the assembly of steel structures, unacceptable weld defects may be found. An economical solution is local thermal gouging of the affected areas and re-welding. Due to high shrinkage restraints of repair weld and sur- rounding structure, high global and local welding stresses superimpose, and may lead to cracking and component failure, especially in connection with the degraded microstructure and mechanical properties of high-strength steels during the repair process. Component-related investigations of high-strength steels (FOSTA P1311/ IGF20162N) focus on welding residual stress evolution during local thermal gouging and rewelding. In this study, repair welding of S500MLO (EN 10225) is carried out using in-situ digital image correlation (DIC) and ex- situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) to analyse strains and stresses. Self-restrained slit specimen geometries were identified representing defined rigidity conditions of repair welds of real components, which were quantified using the restraint intensity concept. The specimens were rewelded with constant welding heat control and parameters. Weld specimens exhibited significantly increased transverse residual stresses with higher transverse restraint intensities, in the weld metal, and in the heat affected zone. Transverse stresses along the weld seam decrease at the weld seam ends leading to different stress state during gouging and welding. XRD analysis of the longitudinal and transverse local residual stresses after cooling to RT showed a good comparability with global DIC analyses.
Laser-based additive manufacturing methods allow the production of complex metal structures within a single manufacturing step. However, the localized heat input and the layer-wise manufacturing manner give rise to large thermal gradients. Therefore, large internal stress (IS) during the process (and consequently residual stress (RS) at the end of production) is generated within the parts. This IS or RS can either lead to distortion or cracking during fabrication or in-service part failure, respectively. With this in view, the knowledge on the magnitude and spatial distribution of RS is important to develop strategies for its mitigation. Specifically, diffraction-based methods allow the spatial resolved determination of RS in a non-destructive fashion. In this review, common diffraction-based methods to determine RS in laser-based additive manufactured parts are presented. In fact, the unique microstructures and textures associated to laser-based additive manufacturing processes pose metrological challenges. Based on the literature review, it is recommended to (a) use mechanically relaxed samples measured in several orientations as appropriate strain-free lattice spacing, instead of powder, (b) consider that an appropriate grain-interaction model to calculate diffraction-elastic constants is both material- and texture-dependent and may differ from the conventionally manufactured variant. Further metrological challenges are critically reviewed and future demands in this research field are discussed.
Um den wachsenden Anforderungen an den stofflichen und konstruktiven Leichtbau sowie den Forderungen nach Ressourceneffizienz Rechnung zu tragen, werden in vielen Industriebranchen zunehmend höherfeste Feinkornbaustähle mit Streckgrenzen über 690 MPa eingesetzt. Allerdings werden mit zunehmender Festigkeit deutlich höhere Anforderungen an deren schweißtechnische Verarbeitung gestellt, da die Sensibilität gegenüber einer Herabsetzung der mechanischen Eigenschaften durch den beim Schweißen aufgenommenen diffusiblen Wasserstoff mit steigender Festigkeit zunehmen kann. In den vergleichenden Untersuchungen von konventionellem Übergangslichtbogen und modifiziertem Sprühlichtbogen bei reduziertem Nahtöffnungswinkel konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Schweißprozessparameter die in das Schweißgut eingebrachte Wasserstoffkonzentration beeinflussen. Grundsätzlich ist den erarbeiteten Ergebnissen zu entnehmen, dass im Schweißgut von Stumpfstoßverbindungen mit reduziertem Nahtöffnungswinkel erhöhte mittlere Wasserstoffkonzentrationen vorliegen. Diese können mit geeigneten Wärmeführungen signifikant reduziert werden. Dabei erwies sich eine Nachwärmprozedur aus der Schweißwärme heraus als zielführend.
Today, an expanding application of high-strength steels in modern welded constructions can be observed. The economical use of these steel grades largely depends on the strength and reliability of the weldments. Therefore, the special microstructure and mechanical properties of these grades have to be taken into account by keener working ranges regarding the welding parameters.
However, performance and safety of welded components are strongly affected by the stresses occurring during and after welding fabrication locally in the weld seam and globally in the whole component, especially if the shrinkage and distortion due to welding are restrained. Some extensive studies describe the optimization of the welding stresses and the metallurgical effects regarding an adapted welding heat control. Lower working temperatures revealed to be particularly effective to reduce the local and global welding-induced residual stresses of the complete weld significantly. However, decreased interpass temperatures cause concurrently higher stresses during welding fabrication. This work shows strategies to reduce these in-process stresses.
With help of multi-axial welding stress analyses in component-related weld tests, using a special 2-MN-testing facility, differences in stress build-up are described in detail for root welds, filler layers and subsequent cooling to ambient temperature.
Residual stresses are crucial when assessing the performance of welded components. The present work deals with the possibilities of transferring the real-life boundary conditions of welding, which influence the residual stress, into the laboratory. The possibilities of a test system specifically developed for this purpose with a maximum capacity of 2 MN are shown. Due to the structural design, global process, geometry and material-dependent stresses are induced, which can be simulated and quantified within the system. Additionally, X-ray diffraction can be applied to determine the resulting local residual stress distribution precisely with high spatial resolution. Two examples are presented how the conditions to be found during production are simulated in the laboratory. It is shown how welding residual stresses in high-strength steels are affected by the heat control. It was possible to clarify why elevated working temperatures significantly increase the bending stresses in the welded joint and therefore the tensile residual stresses in the heat affected zone (HAZ). The effect of a heat treatment applied under mechanical stress resulting from welding is demonstrated by the example of a creep resistant steel. Reheat cracking is significantly increased in this case compared to small scale laboratory based tests.