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A laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) system was combined with the Gas Tungsten Arc (TIG) Welding process for the in situ monitoring of chemical compositions in austenitic stainless steels during welding. The purpose of this project is to develop a prototype of an online chemical composition control system for welding applications. One of the use cases of this new LIBS-based measurement system can be the controlling of potentially dangerous emissions during the welding process in order to improve the working safety conditions.
The Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding process was combined with a Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) system for the in situ measurement of chemical compositions in austenitic stainless steels. The main aim of this project was the development of a prototype for a real-time chemical composition analysis system for welding applications. In principle, the measurement of the weld pool composition allows governing the weld pool solidification behaviour by controlling the welding parameters. This control loop allows avoiding weld defects.
Chemical compositions of the weld seam is from a metallurgical point of view the most critical parameter for the occurrence of weld defects. Additionally, this new LIBS-based measurement system can be used for the monitoring and controlling of potentially dangerous emissions during the welding process in order to improve the working safety conditions. Preliminary investigations show that the chemical composition measurement of welds with LIBS is possible during and after welding.
Influence of Surface Preparation on Cracking Phenomena in TIG-Welded High and Medium Entropy Alloys
(2022)
Multi-element systems with defined entropy (HEA—high entropy alloy or MEA—medium entropy alloy) are rather new material concepts that are becoming increasingly important in materials research and development. Some HEA systems show significantly improved properties or combinations of properties, e.g., the overcoming of the trade-off between high strength and ductility. Thus, the synthesis, the resulting microstructures, and properties of HEA have been primarily investigated so far. In addition, processing is crucial to achieve a transfer of potential HEA/MEA materials to real applications, e.g., highly stressed components. Since fusion welding is the most important joining process for metals, it is of vital importance to investigate the weldability of these materials. However, this has rarely been the subject of research to date. For that reason, in this work, the weldability depending on the surface preparation of a CoCrFeMnNi HEA and a CoCrNi MEA for TIG welding is investigated. The fusion welding of longer plates is described here for the first time for the CoCrNi alloy. The welds of both materials showed distinct formation of cracks in the heat affected Zone (HAZ). Optical and scanning electron microscopy analysis clearly confirmed an intergranular fracture topography. However, based on the results, the crack mechanism cannot be conclusively identified as either a liquid metal embrittlement (LME) or hot cracking-like liquid film separation.
Multi-element systems with defined entropy (HEA - High Entropy Alloy or MEA - Medium Entropy Alloy) are rather new material concepts that are becoming increasingly important in materials research and development. Some HEA systems show significantly improved properties or combinations of properties, e.g., the overcome of the trade-off between high strength and ductility. Thus, the synthesis, the resulting microstructures, and properties of HEA have been primarily investigated so far. In addition, processing is crucial to achieve a transfer of potential HEA/MEA materials to real applications, e.g. highly stressed components. Since fusion welding is the most important joining process for metals, it is of vital importance to investigate the weldability of these materials. However, this has rarely been the subject of research up to date. For that reason, in this work the weldability depending on the surface preparation of a CoCrFeMnNi-HEA and a CoCrNi-MEA for TIG welding is investigated. The fusion welding of longer plates is described here for the first time for the CoCrNi alloy. The welds of both materials showed distinct formation of cracks in the heat affected zone (HAZ). Optical and scanning electron microscopy analysis clearly confirmed an intergranular fracture topography. But based on the results, the crack mechanism cannot be conclusively clarified as either a liquid metal embrittlement (LME) or hot cracking like liquid film separation occurred.
Multiple principal element alloys encompass the well-known high entropy alloys (HEA). The alloy system represents a new class of materials consisting of at least three alloying elements, each containing 5 to 35 at.%. Thus, this alloying concept differs fundamentally from conventional materials such as steel or nickel alloys. For this purpose, the alloying elements are specifically selected, the microstructures are adjusted in a single-phase and, in some cases, multi-phase manner. In particular, conflicting goals, such as the trade-off between strength and ductility in conventional steels, are overcome. However, in the last 20 years, the focus has been on material synthesis. With the increase in available material quantities, the focus is now on processing issues such as joining and welding processes. The weldability of HEAs has received very little attention so far. The experience with dissimilar metal welds is completely lacking but is essential for the application of these materials in combination with conventional materials. The present study presents comprehensive experimental results on the weldability of an equimolar CoCrFeMnNi-HEA in cold-rolled and heat-treated condition, which was joined by tungsten inert gas welding to an austenitic steel AISI 304. The mechanical properties of the dissimilar metal welds were characterized by cross-weld tensile samples, whereas the local deformation in the weld of the different welding zones was measured by digital image correlation. In accordance with the respective initial HEA condition (cold-rolled vs. heat-treated), the local strain behavior was divergent and influenced the global mechanical properties of both DMW types. Nonetheless, the experiments provided proof in principle of the weldability for dissimilar joints of the CoCrFeMnNi-HEA welded to conventional materials like austenitic stainless steels ensuring a corresponding capability for mechanical loading. This allows further considerations on the application of these innovative materials.
Dissimilar metal TIG weld joints of multiple principal element alloys (MPEA) to austenitic steel 304
(2023)
Multi-element alloys (MPEA - Multiple Principal Element Alloys) represent a new class of materials consisting of at least three alloying elements, each with 5 to 35 atomic %. This material class includes high-entropy alloys (HEA, with n ≥ 4 elements). The underlying alloying concept differs fundamentally from conventional materials such as the Fe-based steel. For this purpose, the alloying elements are specifically selected, and the microstructures are adjusted in a single-phase and, in some cases, multi-phase manner. The aim is to identify highly innovative MPEA with individually adjustable properties for industrial applications. In the last 20 years, however, the focus has been on pure material synthesis. With the increase in available material quantities, the focus is on processing issues such as joining and welding processes. In that connection, the weldability of MPEAs has received very little attention so far. Experience with dissimilar metal welds (DMWs) is completely lacking but is essential for the application of these materials if joint to conventional materials. This study presents selected experimental results on the weldability of MPEA-DMWs and the resulting microstructures. For this purpose, the equiatomic CoCrFeMnNi (HEA) was investigated in cold-rolled (CR) and heat-treated (HT) condition and joined by tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding to an austenitic stainless steel 304. The DMWs showed defect-free conditions (no lack of fusion, cracks and so on), whereas the cold-rolling increases the microhardness. The global mechanical properties were obtained by instrumented tensile tests of cross-weld samples and showed sufficient yield and tensile strength comparable to that of the individual base materials (BM). The local strain conditions were determined by digital image correlation and showed the highest local strains to occur in the intermixed weld metal. Indeed, the preferred fracture location of the cross-weld tensile samples was in the weld metal. Finally, the experiments proofed the weldability of the MPEAs to conventional 304. This enables targeted further considerations for example as structural materials.
Duplexstähle besitzen ein zweiphasiges Gefüge und werden aufgrund ihrer verbesserten Schweißeignung gegenüber den Vollausteniten häufig im Anlagen- bzw. Apparatebau eingesetzt. Aufgrund der hohen Abkühlgeschwindigkeit und dem Abbrand von Legierungselementen kommt es zu einer Ferritisierung des Schweißguts und damit zu einer Degradation der mechanischen Eigenschaften. Zur Vorhersage des Phasenverhältnisses im Schweißgut wird das WRC1992-Diagramm genutzt. Dieses Diagramm zeigt einige Ungenauigkeiten und benötigt zur genaueren Vorhersage der Phasenverhältnisse eine Überarbeitung. Um den Einfluss einzelner Elemente auf das Schweißnahtmikrogefüge besser zu verstehen, wurden drahtförmige Schweißzusatzwerkstoffe mit dem Ferrit-Bildner Nb und dem Austenit-Bildner Cu beschichtet und für Schweißungen verwendet. Die Messmethode der Laser-induzierten Plasmaspektroskopie (LIBS) bietet hier eine gute Möglichkeit der in situ Überwachung der chemischen Konzentrationen, während des WIG-Schweißens von Duplexstählen. Die LIBS-Messergebnisse, konnten mit der Ferritnummer und der Schweißnahtmikrostruktur korreliert werden.
Duplex stainless steels (DSS) are used in all industries where corrosion problems play a major role. Examples include the chemical industry, the food industry and shipping industries. DSS have a balanced phase ratio of ferrite (α) and austenite (γ). Unlike single-phase stainless steels, DSS combine the advantages of these and can therefore fit many industry requirements, such as weight saving or high mechanical strength. When these steels are welded, alloying elements can burn off and condense as thin layers on cold surface regions. This loss of chemical elements can lead to changes in the microstructure. With the help of Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS), chemical element distributions were visualized. The results were compared with those of conventional measurement methods, such as energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDS) and X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF), and the results from LIBS could be validated. LIBS is suitable as a fast, straightforward measurement method for producing line scans along the weld seam and provides spatially resolved information on accumulation phenomena of burned off alloying elements. LIBS is very well suited for the detection of sub-surface elements due to the exclusively superficial ablation of the material. In addition, the measurement method has been calibrated so that quantitative statements about element concentrations can also be made.
Many applications in industry require a material-to-material joining process of Duplex Stainless Steels (DSS). Therefore, it is essential to investigate the material’s properties during a welding process to control the weld quality. With the help of Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS), the chemical composition during the Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding process of DSS could be monitored in situ. The chemical composition could be quantitatively measured using pre-established calibration curves. Although the surface temperature and the welding plasma have a high influence on the spectral intensities, reliable composition measurements were possible. The concentration of alloying elements could be mapped during the TIG welding process.
Duplex stainless steels (DSS) are frequently used, especially in applications requiring high strength combined with high corrosion resistance in aggressive media. Examples include power plant components and maritime structures. During welding of these steels, local variations in chemical composition can occur. This results in ferritization of the material and negatively affects the mechanical properties of the components. In this work, tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding experiments were performed with DSS. Chemical composition analysis was realized in situ by using Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS). The aim of the work is to quantitatively measure the chemical composition in the weld seam of various DSS and to identify possible influences of welding parameters on the microstructure of the material. The chemical concentrations of the main alloying elements Cr, Ni, Mn on the surface of the sample during the welding process and the cooling process were measured. Mn and Ni are austenite stabilizers and their content increases during welding by using certain high alloyed filler material. Spectra were recorded every 1.3 s at a spacing of approximately 2 mm. During the cooling process the location of the measurement was not changed. The LIBS method is proofed to be suitable for the quantitative representation of the chemical compositions during the welding process.