Ingenieurwissenschaften und zugeordnete Tätigkeiten
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In Additive Manufacturing everybody is talking about Free Form, Unconventional Design, Re-thinking Components, “Think out of the box”.
However, there are a few outstanding question: a) What are the material properties ? They certainly differ from literature values for conventional materials; b) How about the microstructure? It is different from conventional materials. Does it stay so with ageing? How does it form? c) Do we properly take residual stress into account? We often blame them for our ignorance about failure scenarios. d) Do we apply tailored heat treatments? Very often, we follow conventional schedules…
This talk describes the summary of the efforts carried out within the BAM Project AGIL.
At BAM, we aimed to thoroughly investigate the microstructure and how it evolves as a function of load and temperature (service), to determine the material properties after different process and service conditions, to properly determine residual stress and the way it impacts mechanical properties and component performance, to properly quantify the impact of (unavoidable?) defects, and to determine heat treatments tailored to the process-specific material (stress relieve, microstructure homogenization etc.).
The Project AGIL was and is intimately coupled with the project ProMoAM, dealing with online monitoring of AM processes.
The underlying cause of mechanical anisotropy in additively manufactured (AM) parts is not yet fully understood and has been attributed to several different factors like microstructural defects, residual stresses, melt pool boundaries, crystallographic and morphological textures.
To better understand the main contributing factor to the mechanical anisotropy of AM stainless steel 316L, bulk specimens were fabricated via laser powder bed fusion (LPBF).
Tensile specimens were machined from these AM bulk materials for three different inclinations relative to the build plate. Dynamic Young's modulus measurements and tensile tests were used to determine the mechanical anisotropy. Some tensile specimens were also subjected to residual stress measurement via neutron diffraction, porosity determination with X-ray micro-computed tomography, and texture analysis with electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). A crystal plasticity model was used to analyze the elastic anisotropy and the anisotropic yield behavior of the AM specimens, and it was able to capture and predict the experimental behavior accurately. Overall, it was shown that the mechanical anisotropy of the tested specimens was mainly influenced by the crystallographic texture.
Due to increasing requirements relating to the efficiency of highly stressed components in turbine or plant construction, the use of cost-intensive, difficult to process materials is increasingly necessary today. In this context, cobalt-chromium alloys in particular are highly resistant to thermal and mechanical stress, as well as to corrosive and abrasive loads. Moreover, increasingly complex structures and the optimisation of resource efficiency also require additive manufacturing steps for the production or repair of components in many sectors. In order to realise a homogeneous and isotropic microstructure, alloy modifications are made to the alloy CoCr26Ni9Mo5W. For this purpose, hafnium and zirconium are added at 1 % and 0,33 % by mass each, as these elements are supposed to have a positive effect on the microstructure morphology. Plasma-Transferred-Arc is used for the welding tests. Wall structures are welded by multiple single-layer, overlapping welding beads on low-alloyed steel substrate (S355). The results show that the alloying elements hafnium and zirconium have a clear influence on the microstructure. Hardness measurements were also carried out. With each modification, the hardness is increased compared to the original material. The machining analyses show a reduction in cutting forces using ultrasonic assisted milling for high cutting speed and low feed rate.
Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies are experiencing an exceedingly rapid growth, driven by their potential through layer wise deposition for transformational improvements of engineering design, leading to efficiency and performance improvements. Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) is an Additive Manufacturing (AM) method which permits the fabrication of complex structures that cannot otherwise be produced via conventional subtractive manufacturing methods. Nevertheless, the rapid cooling rates associated with this process results in the formation of significant and complex residual stress (RS) fields. A large body of both experimental and simulation research has been dedicated in recent years to the control and mitigation of RS in AM. In order to validate simulations with the end goal of being able to model the residual stress state in AM components and to devise strategies for their reduction during manufacturing, experimental methods need to be able to accurately determine 3D residual stresses fields in complex geometries. Several destructive and non-destructive methods can be used to analyze the RS state, the choice of which depends on the geometry and the information required. Diffraction-based methods using penetrating neutron and synchrotron X-rays at large scale facilities offer the possibility to non-destructively spatially resolve both surface and bulk residual stresses in complex components and track their changes following applied thermal or mechanical loads. This presentation will overview the success stories of using large scale facilities by the BAM for the characterization of residual stresses in additively manufactured metallic alloys. In particular, the study of the influence of process parameters on the residual stress state and the relaxation of these stresses through heat treatment will be presented. However there remains challenges to overcome particularly of the hypotheses underlying the experimental determination of residual stresses, which will be discussed.
Introduction to AGIL
(2021)
Metal Additive manufacturing (AM) technologies such as Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) enable the fabrication of complex structures, giving rise to potential improvements in component and manufacturing efficiency. However, the processes are typically characterized by the generation of high magnitude residual stress (RS) which can have detrimental consequences for subsequent applications. Therefore, the characterization of these RS fields and the understanding of their formation and mitigation through optimized processing is crucial for the wider uptake of the technology. Due to the potential complex nature and high value of components manufactured by LPBF, it is important to have suitable characterisation methods which can determine the spatial variations of RS in a non-destructive manner. Neutron diffraction is considered to be the best suited for these requirements. However, the microstructures developed in the complex thermal cycles experience in the production can pose challenges to the ND method for RS analysis. The BAM has conducted significant research over the past years to overcome these obstacles, enabling higher confidence in the RS determined in LPBF materials by neutron diffraction. This contribution will overview some of these advancements made recently at European neutron sources including on Stress-Spec at FRM2/MLZ.
Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) is an additive manufacturing process for materials which inherently tends to yield various degrees of metastable hierarchical microstructures, defects and high residual stresses in the as-built condition depending on the process parameters. The understanding of the evolution of these typical features during heat treatment and subsequent thermal and mechanical ageing is crucial for the wider acceptance for safety critical structures. A multi-disciplinary research project at BAM studying the development of the microstructure, defects, residual stresses typical of LPBF 316L and their evolution during thermal and mechanical ageing has led to insights into the stability of these inherent features. This presentation aims to give a broad overview of the project with a few specific cases of investigation. Firstly, the formation of residual stresses, the nature of the initial microstructure, the tensile properties and a modelling approach to understand the anisotropy will be presented. This will be followed by examples of studies of their evolution during heat treatment, long term thermal exposure, and room temperature and high temperature mechanical testing compared to a baseline of conventional wrought variant of the same alloy.
Additive Manufacturing (AM) in terms of laser powder-bed fusion (L-PBF) offers new prospects regarding the design of parts and enables therefore the production of complex structures. The quality of the feedstock material receives increasing attention, as it depicts the first part of the L-PBF process chain. The powder quality control in terms of flowability and powder bed packing density is therefore mandatory.
In this work, a workflow for quantitative 3D powder analysis in terms of particle size, particle shape, particle porosity, inter-particle distance and packing density was established. Synchrotron computed tomography (CT) was used to correlate the packing density with the particle size and particle shape for three different powder batches. The polydisperse particle size distribution (PSD) was transformed into a statistically equivalent bidisperse PSD. The ratio of the small and large particles helped to understand the powder particle packing density. While the particle shape had a neglectable influence, the particle size distribution was identified as major contributor for the packing density.
Additive manufacturing processes are increasingly being used in industrial applications. Especially powder bed fusion processes are of high interest due to their capability to economically produce individual, highly complex and functionally integrated components in small batches.
However, the quality assurance of these components remains a challenge. Internal defects and undesirable microstructures and surface conditions can deteriorate the mechanical properties. Especially for use in safety-relevant applications, new design and inspection concepts are needed that take these factors into account.
This talk presents typical defects and microstructure phenomena resulting from the laser powder bed fusion process and identifies challenges and opportunities for non-destructive testing from a manufacturing engineering perspective. In particular, the possibility of a process-integrated quality control is shown based on current research results.