Ingenieurwissenschaften und zugeordnete Tätigkeiten
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- Air-coupled ultrasonic testing (2)
- Active thermography (1)
- Atmospheric pressure plasma (1)
- CFRP (1)
- Cellular polypropylene (1)
- Ferroelectrets (1)
- Focused sound fields (1)
- Focused transducers (1)
- GFRP (1)
- Gas discharges (1)
Organisationseinheit der BAM
In special cases of angle beam ultrasonic measurement – e.g. defect detection in hot solids as well as flow measurement of liquid gases or energy storage mediums – the applied transducer has to withstand extreme temperatures. Since the irradiation angle into the specific material is determined not only by wedge design, but also by the speed of sound in both the wedge material and the tested object, the developer must take into account the speed of the wave propagation in a wedge material over the whole temperature range of transducers application.
In this study we investigate the temperature dependence of the speed of longitudinal wave propagation in 10 different materials in the range from -200 °C to 400 °C. The investigated materials belong to different material classes (ceramics, glass, as well as ferrous and non-ferrous metals) and are all temperature-resistant up to at least 600 °C, and therefore applicable as wedge materials in an ultrasonic transducer for use at extreme temperatures.
Modern and energy-efficient materials are essential for innovative designs for aerospace and automotive industries. Current technologies for rapid manufacturing such as additive manufacturing and liquid composite moulding by polymer Extrusion allow innovative ways of creating robust and lightweight constructions. Commercially available printing devices often use polylactide (PLA) or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) as raw material. Therefore, parameters like the infill ratio, influencing the ability to resist mechanical stress, may have a beneficial impact on the lifetime of components.
These manufacturing technologies require a good knowledge about materials and even adapted non-destructive testing technologies and methods. Airborne ultrasonic testing has beneficial advantages for testing those lightweight constructions. It is a contact-free testing method, which does not require a liquid couplant. Therefore, it allows fast test cycles without any unwanted alternations of the material properties due to interactions with any coupling liquid. This contribution deals with the characterisation of printed specimens based on PLA by using airborne ultrasound and presents the current edge of non-destructive testing and evaluation using airborne ultrasonic transducers. The specimens, manufactured by polymer extrusion, are printed as thin plates. The infill ratio, as well as the material thickness, were varied to model density imperfections with different geometric shapes and properties. For better understanding of the limits of airborne ultrasonic testing in transmission, we compared own-developed transducers based on different physical principles: on ferroelectrets, on the thermoacoustic effect, as well as a new type of transducers based on gas discharges.
Quantification of impact damages in CFRP and GFRP structures with thermography and ultrasonics
(2018)
The extent of damage caused by impacts in fibre reinforced composites depends on the energy of the impacts, on the velocity and the shape of the impacting body, on the material and structure of the composite and on the geometry of the structure. Here, mainly the thickness of the component is essential. The non-destructive evaluation of these damages can be carried out using both ultrasound and active thermography methods. A comparison of the detection sensitivity of these methods for the different damages is carried out in this paper depending on the fibre composite material used (CFRP and GFRP), the thickness of the material and the impact energy. The NDT methods used after the damage are supplemented by thermographic measurements with high temporal resolution, which were already recorded during the impact.
Rising importance of composite lightweight structures in aircraft and automobile industries increases the demand on reliable non-destructive testing methods for these structures. Air-coupled ultrasonic testing emerged to suit these requirements as it does not require any liquid coupling medium. In conventional air-coupled ultrasonic transducers, matching layers are used in order to decrease the impedance mismatch between transducer and air. Matching layers can be omitted by using ferroelectrets, which are charged cellular polymers having ferroelectric and piezoelectric properties. Especially a low Young’s modulus, low density and low sound velocity of cellular polypropylene (cPP) are properties being required for well-matched air-coupled ultrasonic transducers.
In our contribution we show recent enhancements of cPP transducers resulting in focused sound fields and thus improved lateral sensitivity. The influence of different transmitter apertures was evaluated using measurements of the emitted sound field. Further we show a transmission of a test specimen of carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic (CFRP) containing artificial damages. Results of focused transducers were compared to planar ferroelectret transducers, as well as to conventional air-coupled transducers.
This thesis proposes a design of experiment for testing and evaluation of the equipment and the methods used in manual mine clearance. The thesis is based on several metal detector trials and a trial of manual demining methods. The core of this dissertation comprises four metal detector trials performed in Germany and Croatian in 2003 and 2005. The purpose of these trials was to investigate the feasibility of the tests described in the CWA (Comité Européende Normalisation/CEN/Workshop Agreement) 14747:2003, the standard for testing metal detectors for humanitarian demining. The goals of the trials were: to find an appropriate design of experiment for testing metal detectors; to establish the use of ROC diagrams (Receiver Operating Characteristics) and POD curves (Probability of Detection) in the analysis of the experimental results; and to gain practical experience in organising and conducting metal detector trials. Apart of this thesis is devoted to a trial of manual demining methods performed in Mozambique in 2004. The main goal of that trial was to compare the speed of various manual demining methods, including the most common excavation methods. The outcome of this work is the proposals and recommendations for an update of the standard for testing metal detectors CWA 14747:2003. Maximum detection height measurements were performed as a part of the metal detector trial carried out in Croatiain2005. The results reveal a high variability of the maximum detection height. This high variability needs to be taken into account in all experiments. Apart of the variability is caused by the differences between the operators and by the setup of the metal detector. It is therefore recommended that two kinds of experiments with the maximum detection height as a response variable are defined in the next update of CWA 14747:2003. The first kind should include the setup, the soil and the operator as factors in the design of experiment. The in-soil measurements with the same detector should be performed with repeated setups and with several operators. The second kind of experiments should be experiments evaluating the influence of other predictor variables. In those experiments, it is recommended to perform one-factor or multiple-factor in-air measurements with the operators and the setup as a block. The main part of the metal detector trials described in this thesis was the detection reliability tests. Detection reliability tests as described in CWA14747:2003 come closest to representing the real field conditions in demining. They include many environmental influences and, most importantly, many of the human factor influences. However, each test design is a compromise between fully representative conditions and cost effectiveness. In this thesis, a fractional factorial design based on the Graeco-Latin square is proposed as a solution to the experimental problem. The results are reported in the form of ROC diagrams and POD curves. The crossover design enables each operator to work with fewer detector models with in a certain time. The variations of the design enabled an unbiased comparison of detectors in each soil and with each target model separately. It is recommended that the solutions proposed in this thesis be incorporated in the standard CWA14747:2003. It has been shown that maximum detection heights measurements provide the information about the best possible performance of a metal detector in are liability test.