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Foreword
(2018)
The subject of this Special Issue is the fracture mechanics-based determination of the fatigue strength of weldments. Except for one, all papers were written in closer or wider relation to a methodology developed within the framework of the German Project cluster IBESS. Some of them provide background or supplementary information needed in that context but which is also relevant in a wider frame of research activities. The acronym IBESS stands for the topic of this Special Issue (in German: „Integrale Methode zu Bruchmechanischen Ermittlung der Schwingfestigkeit von Schweißverbindungen). Eight partners were involved. The cluster was cooperatively founded by the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) and by the German AiF Network (Arbeitsgemeinschaft industrieller Forschungsvereinigungen) for industrial research.
Die Beschaffung und Verarbeitung von Werkstoffen für hochbelastete Komponenten sind meist kostenintensiv. Bestrebungen zur Kosten- und Ressourceneffizienz führen zu komplexeren Strukturen bzw. Konturen, sodass generative Fertigungsschritte zur Bauteilreparatur und -fertigung deutliche ökonomische Vorteile bieten. Hierfür sind generative und abtragende Fertigungsschritte komplementär und gezielt aufeinander abzustimmen, um beanspruchungsgerechte Funktionsflächen herzustellen. Hinsichtlich Inhomogenität und Anisotropie der Gefüge und Eigenschaften sowie fertigungsbedingter Beanspruchungen sind für den wirtschaftlichen Einsatz bei KMU, gerade für drahtbasierte Fertigungsverfahren und Wechselwirkungen nachfolgender Zerspanung dieser schwer spanbaren Werkstoffe noch viele Kenntnisse notwendig. Deshalb sind Untersuchungen zu diesen Einflüssen und Wechselwirkungen unter Nutzung innovativer Ansätze geplant. Mit typischen kostenintensiven Ni- und Co-Cr-Legierungen werden generativ Bauteile, Auftrag- und Reparaturschweißungen hergestellt und Schweißzusätze für das PTA-Verfahren modifiziert, um die Erstarrungsmorphologie und das Eigenschaftsprofil zu optimieren. Die Übertragung auf MSG-Verfahren sichert einen breiten industriellen Einsatz für hohe Auftragraten ab. Die wirtschaftliche spanende Bearbeitbarkeit wird mit Zerspanbarkeitsanalysen für Schlichtfräsen und vergleichend für ultraschallunterstütze Fräsprozesse sichergestellt. Instrumentierte Experimente und Werkstoffanalytik hinsichtlich der Einflüsse auf Schmelzbad, Gefüge und Ausscheidungen sowie auf Randzoneneigenschaften und Eigenspannungen ermöglichen umfassende Erkenntnisse zur kombinierten generativen und abtragenden Fertigung. Durch Bauteilversuche und -prüfungen, Übertragbarkeitsstudien weiterer innovativer Werkstoffe verbunden mit Handlungsempfehlungen und der Zusammenarbeit mit den jeweiligen Normungsgremien profitieren KMU von einer hochwirtschaftlichen Herstellung und Reparatur kostenintensiver Komponenten.
Additive Manufacturing (AM) offers the opportunity to produce easier geometrically complex parts compared to traditional production technologies. An important AM technology for metals is selective laser melting (SLM) where a part is produced by melting and solidifying powder in layers. This technique is known to cause a pronounced texture in the produced AM products due to the specific heat flow and the associated solidification of the material during SLM deposition. In order to evaluate the influence of the deposition hatch length during SLM of nickel based superalloy Inconel 718 samples on the texture and in order to identify any preferred crystallographic direction, we performed monochromatic neutron radiography scans (using wavelength from 1.6 Å to 4.4 Å, step size 0.05 Å) to image the samples while rotating it through 90°. Samples produced with short hatch length showed fine textured columnar grains oriented along the sample building direction in high-resolution radiographs. Whereas processing the sample using a ten-fold longer hatch length reduced the texture. The neutron radiographic experiments were accompanied by scanning electron microscopy including electron back-scattered diffraction to visualize and verify the microstructure and texture.
Unter der zyklischen R-Kurve versteht man die Abhängigkeit des Schwellenwertes gegen Ermüdungsrissausbreitung von der Risstiefe im Kurzrissbereich. Bei Spannungsverhältnissen R = omin/omax < ca. 0,7 erhöht sich der Schwellenwert AKltl ausgehend von einer intrinsischen, werkstoffspezifischen Untergrenze mit zunehmender Risstiefe, bis er einen risslängenunabhängigen Wert erreicht.
Ursache ist der graduelle Aufbau unterschiedlicher Rissschließeffekte. Die besondere Bedeutung des Kurzrisswachtums allgemein und der zyklischen R-Kurve speziell besteht darin, dass sie ein physikalisches Bindeglied zwischen der konventionellen Schwingfestigkeit (Wöhlerkurve) und der Bruchmechanik repräsentieren. Der Beitrag befasst sich sowohl mit der experimentellen Ermittlung der zyklischen R-Kurve als auch mit ihrer Anwendung auf Rissarrest im Zusammenhang mit Schwingfestigkeitsbetrachtungen.
Die experimentelle Ermittlung der zyklischen R-Kurve erfordert einen experimentellen Aufwand, der deutlich über den der Langrissbruchmechanik hinausgeht. Insbesondere im Anfangsbereich ist eine sehr genaue Messung der Risstiefe erforderlich, was eine Verbesserung etwa der konventionellen Potentialmethode erforderlich macht. Von wesentlicher Bedeutung ist auch, dass der Ausgangsriss vor
Beginn des eigentlichen Versuchs keine Rissschließeffekte gesehen haben darf. Realisiert wird das durch eine vorgeschaltete Phase von sog. „Compression Pre-cracking“, d.h. durch Anschwingen komplett im Druckbereich.
Die Verwendung von Low Transformation Temperature (LTT) Schweißzusatzwerkstoffen ist eine innovative Möglichkeit, um beim Schweißen von hochfesten Stählen die schweißbedingten Zugeigenspannungen zu reduzieren. Durch die Zugabe von Legierungselementen, wie beispielsweise Nickel oder Mangan haben diese Werkstoffe eine, im Vergleich zu herkömm-lichen Schweißzusatzwerkstoffen deutlich herabgesetzte Martensitstarttemperatur (MS). Dadurch ist es möglich, die schweißbedingten Zugeigenspannungen mit LTT-Schweißzusatz-werkstoffen gezielt zu reduzieren oder sogar Druckeigenspannungen zu erzeugen.
Im Verlauf vorangegangener Arbeiten hat sich herausgestellt, dass einige der untersuchten LTT-Legierungen aufgrund ihres Erstarrungs- bzw. Seigerungsverhaltens eine gegenüber vielen konventionellen Schweiß-zusatzwerkstoffen erhöhte Heißrisssensibilität aufweisen.
Die aktuellen Arbeiten zielen darauf, die Heißrissneigung neuartiger LTT-Schweißzusatzwerkstoffe weiter zu ergründen.
Die chemische Zusammensetzung der Schweißnaht und WEZ haben einen wesentlichen Einfluss auf die Schweißnahtqualität. Aktuelle Prüfmethoden für Schweißnähte können post factum messen und die Schweißfehler nicht verhindern.
Das Abbrandverhalten kann über die Erstarrung wesentlichen Einfluss haben und zu Versprödung oder Rissbildung führen. Die in situ Überwachung der chemischen Zusammensetzung der Schweißnähte gewährleistet eine kontrollierte Verfestigung und Beständigkeit gegen Schweißfehler. Ein in situ Schweißnahtprüfverfahren mittels LIBS wurde entwickelt.
IBESS Methology for the fracture mechanics-based determination of the fatigue strength of weldments
(2018)
The presentation provides a brief overview on the results of a German cluster project on the use of fracture mechanics to the determination of the fatigue strength of weldments with fatigue cracks originating at the weld toes. The approach includes (a) a concept for short crack propagation for which the common K concept is not applicable and the crack closure effects are still being gradually build-up, (b) a method for determining fatigue life relevant initial crack sizes as they are needed in any fracture mechanics analysis and (c) multiple cracking and crack coalescence at load levels higher than the endurance limit. The analyses are stochastically performed. Both, the endurance limit as defined for 107 loading cycles and the finite life branch of the S-N curve are determined.
Additive Manufacturing (AM) through the Selective Laser Melting (SLM) route offers ample scope for producing geometrically complex parts compared to the conventional subtractive manufacturing strategies. Nevertheless, the residual stresses which develop during the fabrication can limit application of the SLM components by reducing the load bearing capacity and by inducing unwanted distortion, depending on the boundary conditions specified during manufacturing.
The present study aims at characterizing the residual stress states in the SLM parts using different diffraction methods. The material used is the nickel based superalloy Inconel 718. Microstructure as well as the surface and bulk residual stresses were characterized. For the residual stress analysis, X-ray, synchrotron and neutron diffraction methods were used. The measurements were performed at BAM, at the EDDI beamline of -BESSY II synchrotron- and the E3 line -BER II neutron reactor- of the Helmholtz-Zentrum für Materialien und Energie (HZB) Berlin.
The results reveal significant differences in the residual stress states for the different characterization techniques employed, which indicates a dependence of the residual state on the penetration depth in the sample. For the surface residual stresses, longitudinal and transverse stress components from both X-ray and synchrotron agree well and the obtained values were around the yield strength of the material. Furthermore, synchrotron mapping disclosed gradients along the width and length of the sample for the longitudinal and transverse stress components. On the other hand, lower residual stresses were found in the bulk of the material measured using neutron diffraction. The longitudinal component was tensile and decreased towards the boundary of the sample. In contrast, the normal component was nearly constant and compressive in nature. The transversal component was almost negligible. The results indicate that a stress re-distribution takes place during the deposition of the consecutive layers. Further investigations are planned to study the phenomenon in detail.
Die Präsentation diskutiert Besonderheiten von Schweißnähten bei der Bestimmung der Zähigkeit bei monotoner Belastung, bei der Ermittlung des zyklischen Rissfortschritts und bei der Ermittlung der Gesamtlebensdauer/Schwingfestigkeit mittels moderner bruchmechanischer Methoden. Besonderes Augenmerk liegt auf der Inhomogenität des Werkstoffs in den einzelnen Nahtbereichen, die sich statistisch (stochastische Verteilung von Gefügeschwachstellen) und systematisch (Effekte von Festigkeits-Mismatch) auswirkt. Als weiterer Faktor kommen Schweißeigenspannungen hinzu, bei denen für die bruchmechanische Analyse eine Fallunterscheidung in primäre und sekundäre Eigenspannungen vorgenommen werden muss. Diskstiert werden die Konsequenzen für die Zähigkeitsermittlung und die Bauteilbewertung.
The Topic of the presentationis a discussion on defects which can cause failure in cyclically loaded metallic components. Although also touching Features such as material defects such as pores or micro-shrinkages, etc. and geometric defects such as surface roughness and secondary notches (which are not considered in the design process) which origin in manufacturing, and others the presentation concentrates on non-metallic inclusions. It is prefaced by an introduction to the life cycle of a fatigue crack from initiation up to fracture. Special emphasis is put on the fact that only cracks which are not arrested during one of their distinct Propagation stages can grow to a critical size.
Ein Defekt ist „eine Imperfektion …, für die in einer quantitativen Analyse gezeigt werden kann, dass sie Versagen verursacht hat, welches ohne die Imperfektion nicht aufgetreten wäre“. Defekte in diesem Sinn können einerseits Werkstoffimperfektionen wie nichtmetallische Einschlüsse, Poren und Porennester, Nichtdurchschweißungen oder Bereiche defekter Mikrostruktur, andererseits unbeabsichtige geometrische Imperfektionen wie Kratzer, Eindrücke, Korrosionsgrübchen, Einbrandkerben, zu große Oberflächenrauheit u.a. sein. Sie können in der Fertigung, im Betrieb oder auch bei der Wartung entstehen. Nicht jede Imperfektion ist ein Defekt im oben genannten Sinn. Entscheidend ist zumeist nicht, dass an ihr ein oder mehrere Risse initiiert werden, sondern dass wenigstens ein Riss wachstumsfähig bleibt und so innerhalb der projektierten Lebensdauer zum Bruch oder anderweitigem Versagen führt. Aufgrund des begrenzten Umfangs bleibt die vorliegen-de Übersicht beschränkt.
This invited plenary lecture is aimed at giving a General overview about the assessment of the fatigue strength of metallic components under constant Amplitude loading based on fracture mechanics. A particular Focus is put on the Evaluation of the fatigue crack driving force and material resistance to fatigue crack Propagation in the Regime of physically/mechanically short cracks. The potential of the methodolody is demonstrated on case studies dealing with the fatigue life prediction of welded joints.
The cyclic J-integral (∆J-integral) is a crack tip parameter of elastic-plastic fracture mechanics which can be used as governing parameter for the description of fatigue crack growth (FCG) in metallic structures. In this contribution, it is applied for modelling FCG in weldments. The ∆J-integral is determined by means of analytical approximation formulas as well as numerical methods. An analytical solution, which takes into account effects of the local ligament plasticity, was derived. This solution is based on well established methods such as R6, BS7910 and SINTAP which were modified for cyclic loading. It incorporates methods for the description of short crack closure behaviour as well as the well known analytical (long) crack closure function of Newman. A specific code was written to evaluate the ∆J-integral numerically in the course of finite element based crack growth simulations. The code was first validated for an infinite plate with centre crack by applying elastic and elastic-plastic material behaviour. Next, the ∆J-integral was calculated for cracks in various butt and cruciform welded joints. The results were compared with the results of the derived analytical approximation formula. A good accordance was achieved between the results.
The paper provides an application of the IBESS approach to the investigation of the influence of various parameters of the global and local weld geometry as well as material defects on the fatigue strength of weldments. For this purpose, the global weld parameters, such as the weld toe radius, the flank angle, the excess weld metal, local secondary notches (in the present study as a measure of surface imperfections) and inclusions sizes have been determined as statistical distributions for different joint types and geometries and two steels of different strengths. The results are in line with literature data and reveal the potential of the theoretical approach to predict the correct trends. The combination with an advanced weld quality system has been demonstrated to be possible.
Welding residual stresses have an impact on the performance of welded structures, on their fracture resistance, their resistance against fatigue crack propagation and, most important, their fatigue strength and fatigue lifetime. The present paper provides an overview on the issue mainly from the point of view of the application of fracture mechanics to the determination of the fatigue strength as the topic of this Special issue. Besides own experimental and theoretical data a comprehensive discussion is provided in that context which includes the definition and interaction of short- and long-range (or reaction) residual stresses, the effect of cyclic mechanical loading and its treatment in fracture and fatigue analyses.
Common fracture mechanics based fatigue considerations are usually limited to the residual lifetime determination of so-called long cracks. The extension of this concept to the total lifetime, as in the S-N curve approach, requires an adequate description of short crack propagation which cannot be based on the Delta K concept, and it must consider the crack closure phenomenon as well as its gradual build-up at the short crack stage. Further, it has to provide a meaningful definition of initial crack dimensions and a solution for the multiple crack problem at stress levels higher than the fatigue limit as it is specific for some configurations such as weldments. This paper aims at a discussion of all these points and offers possible solutions which are illustrated by examples taken from the German IBESS project on fracture mechanics based determination of the fatigue strength of weldments, the results of which will be discussed in more detail in this Special issue.
The so-called cyclic R curve, i.e. the crack size dependence of the fatigue crack propagation threshold in the physically short crack regime, is a key parameter for bringing together fatigue strength and fracture mechanics concepts. Its adequate determination is of paramount importance. However, notwithstanding this relevance, no test guideline is available by now and only very few institutions have spent research effort on cyclic R curves so far. The aim of the present paper is to give an overview on the state-of-the-art. Besides an introduction into the basic principles, the discussion will concentrate on the experimental determination on the one hand and questions of its application on the other hand.
Any fracture mechanics based determination of the fatigue strength of weldments requires different input information such as the local weld geometry and material data of the areas the crack is passing through during its propagation. The latter is so far not a trivial task as the fatigue crack is usually initiated at the weld toe at the transition from the weld metal to the heat affected zone and it subsequently propagates through the different microstructures of the latter to eventually grow into the base material and to cause final fracture. This paper describes how the material input information has gained particularly for heat affected zone material by thermo-mechanically simulated material specimens for two steels of quite different static strength. The data comprise the cyclic stress-strain curve, the crack closure effect-corrected crack growth characteristics, long crack fatigue crack propagation thresholds, the dependency of the parameter on the crack length and monotonic fracture resistance. The substantial experimental effort was necessary for the validation exercises of the IBESS approach, however, within the scope of practical application more easily applicable estimating methods are required. For that purpose the paper provides a number of appropriate proposals in line with its check against the reference data from the elaborate analyses.
The work presents the procedure developed within the German research project IBESS, which allows for the fracture mechanics-based prediction of the fatigue strength of welded joints under constant amplitude loading. Based on the experimental observations of the crucial failure mechanisms, the approach focuses on the short crack propagation, where elastic-plastic fracture mechanics and the build-up of closure effects must be considered as well as the variability of the local geometry at the weld toe and the modelling of multiple crack interaction. Analytical solutions are provided for the approximation of the through-thickness stress profiles at the weld toe and for the determination of the crack driving force in the form of a plasticity-corrected stress intensity factor range ∆K_p. Proposals for the determination of the initial crack size and the crack closure factor are also included.
The approach is validated against a large number of experimental data, which comprises fatigue tests on individual cracks monitored by heat tinting and beach-marking techniques, as well as stress life curves. Three kinds of welded joints, two steels of significant different strengths and three stress ratios are considered. The results show that the procedure provides good estimations of the statistical distribution of the fatigue strength of welded joints both for the finite and infinite life regime. Furthermore, the predictions are compared with available benchmark data for structural steels.
In vielen Industriebranchen werden zunehmend hochfeste Feinkornbaustähle mit Streckgrenzen ≥ 690 MPa eingesetzt. Allerdings werden mit zunehmender Festigkeit deutlich höhere Anforderungen an deren schweißtechnische Verarbeitung gestellt, da gerade die Sensibilität gegenüber einer Degradation der mechanischen Eigenschaften, durch den beim Schweißen aufgenommenen Wasserstoff, mit steigender Festigkeit stark zunimmt. In der vorliegenden Präsentation sind Ergebnisse aus vergleichenden Untersuchungen mit konventionellem Übergangslichtbogen und modifiziertem Sprühlichtbogen mit reduziertem Nahtöffnungswinkel hinsichtlich der Wasserstoffaufnahme beim Schweißen unter Variation von Streckenenergie, Arbeitstemperatur und Nachwärmprozedur dargestellt. Grundsätzlich ist den erarbeiteten Ergebnissen zu entnehmen, dass im Schweißgut von Stumpfstoßverbindungen mit reduziertem Nahtöffnungswinkel erhöhte mittlere Wasserstoffkonzentrationen vorliegen. Geeignete Wärmeführungen führten zu einer signifikanten Reduzierung der Wasserstoffkonzentration beim Einsatz der Nahtkonfiguration mit abgesenktem Nahtöffnungswinkel. Dabei erwies sich eine Nachwärmprozedur aus der Schweißwärme heraus als zielführend. Des weiteren sind Gradienten der Wasserstoffkonzentration in Blechdickenrichtung aufgezeigt.
Two-dimensional residual stress mapping of multilayer LTT weld joints using the contour method
(2018)
Low transformation temperature (LTT) weld filler materials offer an attractive alternative to cost intensive postweld treatments as they can mitigate detrimental welding residual stresses during the welding process. Compared to conventional weld filler materials, LTT alloys are characterized by a delayed martensite transformation at low temperatures, which can result in compressive residual stresses in the weld. The high strength of these filler materials makes them potentially applicable to high-strength steels as well as for a large amount of requested repair works in steel structures. The focus of the study is on the confirmation of the LTT idea with regard to the residual stress state for multipass weld lines processed by metal active gas welding. It is demonstrated that the contour method is a well-suited technique for measuring the residual stress in the weld joint as it gives an entire two-dimensional map of the residual stress state in the weld line, heat affected zone (HAZ), and base material. The technique was applied at different LTT alloys with varying chemical compositions. Additionally, the results are compared to residual stress maps that were determined by Neutron diffraction using the Strain Analyzer for Large Scale Engineering Applications, an
instrument referred to as SALSA, at the Institut Laue-Langevin in Grenoble. For all investigated specimens, compressive residual stress distributions were determined in the area of the weld joint and the HAZ. They are balanced by tensile residual stresses in the surrounding base material. However, it is shown that the size of theregion exhibiting compressive residual stresses and the absolute values of the compressive residual stresses depend on the chemical composition of the weld filler material.
The residual stress distribution in IN718 elongated prisms produced by Selective Laser Melting was studied by means of neutron (bulk) and laboratory X-ray (surface) diffraction.
Two deposition hatch lengths were considered. A horizontal plane near the top surface (perpendicular to the building direction) and a vertical plane near the lateral surface (parallel to the building direction) were investigated. Samples both in as-built (AB) condition and removed (RE) from the base plate were characterized.
While surface stress fields seem constant for AB condition, X-ray diffraction shows stress gradients along the hatch direction in the RE condition. The stress profiles correlate with the distortion maps obtained by tactile probe measurements.
Neutron diffraction shows bulk stress gradients for all principal components along the main sample directions. We correlate the observed stress patterns with the hatch length, i.e. with its effect on temperature gradients and heat flow. The bulk stress gradients partially disappear after removal from the baseplate.
Residual stresses are crucial when assessing the performance of welded components. The present work deals with the possibilities of transferring the real-life boundary conditions of welding, which influence the residual stress, into the laboratory. The possibilities of a test system specifically developed for this purpose with a maximum capacity of 2 MN are shown. Due to the structural design, global process, geometry and material-dependent stresses are induced, which can be simulated and quantified within the system. Additionally, X-ray diffraction can be applied to determine the resulting local residual stress distribution precisely with high spatial resolution. Two examples are presented how the conditions to be found during production are simulated in the laboratory. It is shown how welding residual stresses in high-strength steels are affected by the heat control. It was possible to clarify why elevated working temperatures significantly increase the bending stresses in the welded joint and therefore the tensile residual stresses in the heat affected zone (HAZ). The effect of a heat treatment applied under mechanical stress resulting from welding is demonstrated by the example of a creep resistant steel. Reheat cracking is significantly increased in this case compared to small scale laboratory based tests.
The performance and safety of welded high-strength low-alloyed steel (HSLA) components are substantially affected by the stresses occurring during and after welding fabrication, especially if welding shrinkage and distortion are severely restrained. The surrounding structure of the whole component affects loads in the far-field superimposing with welding stresses in the near-field of the weld. In this study a unique testing facility was used to restrain shrinkage and bending while analyse multiaxial far-field loads (max. 2 MN) during assembly of thick-walled component. A novel approach for the assessment of the in-situ-measured far-field data in combination with the actual weld geometry was elaborated. For the first time, analyses of the global bending moments of restrained welds based on the neutral axis of the actual weld load bearing section were achieved. Hence, far-field measurements offered the possibility to determine critical near-field stresses of the weld crosssections for the entire joining process. This work presents the approach for far-to-near field in-situ determination of stresses in detail for the 2-MN-testing system based on an extensive experimental work on HSLA steel welds, which demonstrates sources and consequences of these high local welding stresses. Thus, it was clarified, why the first weld beads are crucial regarding welding stresses and cold cracking, which is well known, but has never been measured so far. Accompanying analyses using X-ray diffraction (XRD) after welding show effects on local residual stress distributions. These analyses indicated viable prospects for stress reduction during assembly of thick-walled HSLA steel components.
The performance and safety of welded high-strength low-alloyed steel (HSLA) components are substantially affected by the stresses occurring during and after welding fabrication, especially if welding shrinkage and distortion are severely restrained. The surrounding structure of the whole component affects loads in the far-field superimposing with welding stresses in the near-field of the weld. In this study a unique testing facility was used to restrain shrinkage and bending while analyse multiaxial far-field loads (max. 2 MN) during assembly of thick-walled component. A novel approach for the assessment of the in-situ-measured far-field data in combination with the actual weld geometry was elaborated. For the first time, analyses of the global bending moments of restrained welds based on the neutral axis of the actual weld load bearing section were achieved. Hence, far-field measurements offered the possibility to determine critical near-field stresses of the weld crosssections for the entire joining process. This work presents the approach for far-to-near field in-situ determination of stresses in detail for the 2-MN-testing system based on an extensive experimental work on HSLA steel welds, which demonstrates sources and consequences of these high local welding stresses. Thus, it was clarified, why the first weld beads are crucial regarding welding stresses and cold cracking, which is well known, but has never been measured so far. Accompanying analyses using X-ray diffraction (XRD) after welding show effects on local residual stress distributions. These analyses indicated viable prospects for stress reduction during assembly of thick-walled HSLA steel components.
Today, an expanding application of high-strength steels in modern welded constructions can be observed. The economical use of these steel grades largely depends on the strength and reliability of the weldments. Therefore, the special microstructure and mechanical properties of these grades have to be taken into account by keener working ranges regarding the welding parameters.
However, performance and safety of welded components are strongly affected by the stresses occurring during and after welding fabrication locally in the weld seam and globally in the whole component, especially if the shrinkage and distortion due to welding are restrained. Some extensive studies describe the optimization of the welding stresses and the metallurgical effects regarding an adapted welding heat control. Lower working temperatures revealed to be particularly effective to reduce the local and global welding-induced residual stresses of the complete weld significantly. However, decreased interpass temperatures cause concurrently higher stresses during welding fabrication. This work shows strategies to reduce these in-process stresses.
With help of multi-axial welding stress analyses in component-related weld tests, using a special 2-MN-testing facility, differences in stress build-up are described in detail for root welds, filler layers and subsequent cooling to ambient temperature.
Compared to conventional welding consumables using low transformation temperature (LTT) filler materials is an innovative method to mitigate tensile residual stresses due to delayed martensite transformation of the weld. For the effective usage of LTT filler materials, a deeper understanding of the complex processes that lead to the final residual stress state during multipass welding is necessary. Transformation kinetics and the strain evolution of multi-pass welds during welding were investigated in situ at the beamline HEMS@PETRAIII, Germany. Compared to conventional welds, the total strain was reduced and compression strain was achieved when using LTT filler materials. For an optimal use of the LTT effect in the root of multi-pass welds, the alloying concept must be adapted taking care of dilution.
Die Verwendung von LTT-Zusatzwerkstoffen stellt einen alternativen Ansatz zu den sonst üblichen Verfahren der Schweißnahtnachbehandlung zur Schwingfestigkeitserhöhung geschweißter Stahlkonstruktionen dar. Der wesentliche Wirkmechanismus beruht auf der Beeinflussung des Eigenspannungszustands durch die niedrige Martensitstarttemperatur bereits während des Schweißens. Dadurch werden die Druckeigenspannungen aus der behinderten Volumenausdehnung infolge Phasenumwandlung voll wirksam. Weiter weist die Schweißnaht eine hohe Härte auf, die die Schwingrissbildung verzögern kann, allerdings auch zu einer niedrigen Kerbschlagarbeit führt.
Im ersten Teil dieses Beitrages werden grundlegende Untersuchungen zur schweißtechnischen Verarbeitung eines LTT-Zusatzwerkstoffes präsentiert. Dies beinhaltet zunächst die Sicherstellung der Schweißbarkeit sowie die Charakterisierung der Schweißgefüge und deren Härte mit dem Ziel, reproduzierbare Verbindungseigenschaften für die nachfolgende Schwingfestigkeitsprüfung herzustellen. Der zweite Teil des Beitrages beschäftigt sich mit den dazugehörigen Schwingfestigkeitsuntersuchungen an den Stählen S355J2 und S960Q unter Verwendung konventioneller Zusatzwerkstoffe im Vergleich zum LTT-Zusatz.
Das verwendete Schweißdetail ist eine Verbindungsschweißung am Stumpfstoß unter Variation der Schweißnahtausführung (DY-Naht und V-Naht). Weitergehend wird eine bauteilähnliche Probe (die Längssteife) untersucht, bei der der LTT-Zusatzwerkstoff als zusätzliche Schweißlage aufgebracht wurde. Neben der Schwingfestigkeit werden die Schweißnähte hinsichtlich der Eigenspannungen, der Eigenspannungsstabilität im Schwingversuch sowie metallografisch charakterisiert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass LTT-Zusatzwerkstoffe unter Einhaltung wesentlicher Konstruktionsrichtlinien zu einem deutlichen Anstieg der Schwingfestigkeit führen. Dadurch kann das Leichtbaupotential hochfester Stahlgüten genutzt werden.
Additive Manufacturing (AM) through the Selective Laser Melting (SLM) route offers ample scope for producing geometrically complex parts compared to the conventional subtractive manufacturing strategies. Nevertheless, the residual stresses which develop during the fabrication can limit application of the SLM components by reducing the load bearing capacity and by inducing unwanted distortion, depending on the boundary conditions specified during manufacturing. The present study aims at characterizing the residual stress states in the SLM parts using different diffraction methods. The material used is the nickel based superalloy Inconel 718. Microstructure as well as the surface and bulk residual stresses were characterized.
For the residual stress analysis, X-ray, synchrotron and neutron diffraction methods were used. The measurements were performed at BAM, at the EDDI beamline of -BESSY II synchrotronand the E3 line -BER II neutron reactor- of the Helmholtz-Zentrum für Materialien und Energie (HZB) Berlin. The results reveal significant differences in the residual stress states for the different characterization techniques employed, which indicates the dependence of the residual state on the penetration depth in the sample. For the surface residual stresses, longitudinal and transverse stress components from X-ray and synchrotron agree well and the obtained values were around the yield strength of the material. Furthermore, synchrotron mapping disclosed gradients along the width and length of the sample for the longitudinal and transverse stress components. On the other hand, lower residual stresses were found in the bulk of the material measured using neutron diffraction. The longitudinal component was tensile and decreased towards the boundary of the sample. In contrast, the normal component was nearly constant and compressive in nature. The transversal component was almost negligible. The results indicate that a stress re-distribution takes place during the deposition of the consecutive layers. Further investigations are planned to study the phenomenon in detail.
Residual stresses are crucial when assessing the performance of welded components. The present work deals with the possibilities of transferring the real-life boundary conditions of welding, which influence the residual stress, into the laboratory. The possibilities of a test system specifically developed for this purpose with a maximum load capacity of 2 MN are shown. Due to the structural design, global process, geometry and material-dependent stresses are induced, which can be simulated and quantified within the system. Additionally, X-ray diffraction can be applied to determine the resulting local residual stress distribution precisely with high spatial resolution. Examples are presented how the conditions to be found during production are simulated in the laboratory. It is shown how welding residual stresses in high-strength steels are affected by the heat control. It was possible to clarify why elevated working temperatures significantly increase the tensile residual stresses in the heat affected zone (HAZ). The effect of a heat treatment applied under mechanical stress resulting from welding is demonstrated by the example of a creep resistant steel. Reheat cracking is significantly increased in this case compared to small scale laboratory based tests.
Submerged arc welded (SAW) components of creep-resistant low-alloyed Cr-Mo-V steels are used for thick-walled heavy petrochemical reactors (wall-thickness up to 475 mm) as well as employed in construction of modern high-efficient fossil fired power plants. These large components are accompanied by significant restraints during welding fabrication, especially at positions of different thicknesses like welding of nozzles. As a result, residual stresses occur, playing a dominant role concerning so-called stress relief cracking (SRC) typically during post weld heat treatment (PWHT). Besides specific metallurgical factors (like secondary hardening due to reprecipitation), high tensile residual stresses are a considerable influence factor on SRC.
For the assessment of SRC susceptibility of certain materials mostly mechanical tests are applied which are isolated from the welding process. Conclusions regarding the influence of mechanical factors are rare so far. The present research follows an approach to reproduce loads, which occur during welding of real thick-walled components scaled to laboratory conditions by using Tests designed on different measures. A large-scale slit specimen giving a high restraint in 3 dimensions by high stiffness was compared to a medium-scale multi-pass welding U-Profile specimen showing a high degree of restraint in longitudinal direction and a small-scale TIG-remelted specimen. The small-scale specimens were additionally subjected to mechanical bending to induce loads that are found during fabrication on the real-scale in heavy components. Results show for all three cases comparable high tensile residual stresses up to yield strength with high gradients in the weld metal and the heat affected zone. Those high tensile stresses can be significant for cracking during further PWHT.
Die Verwendung von LTT-Zusatzwerkstoffen stellt einen alternativen Ansatz zu den sonst üblichen Verfahren der Schweißnahtnachbehandlung zur Schwingfestigkeitserhöhung geschweißter Stahlkonstruktionen dar. Der wesentliche Wirkmechanismus beruht auf der Beeinflussung des Eigenspannungszustands durch die niedrige Martensitstarttemperatur bereits während des Schweißens. Dadurch werden die Druckeigenspannungen aus der behinderten Volumenausdehnung infolge Phasenumwandlung voll wirksam. Weiter weist die Schweißnaht eine hohe Härte auf, die die Schwingrissbildung verzögern kann, allerdings auch zu einer niedrigen Kerbschlagarbeit führt.
Im ersten Teil dieses Beitrages werden grundlegende Untersuchungen zur schweißtechnischen Verarbeitung eines LTT-Zusatzwerkstoffes präsentiert. Dies beinhaltet zunächst die Sicherstellung der Schweißbarkeit sowie die Charakterisierung der Schweißgefüge und deren Härte mit dem Ziel, reproduzierbare Verbindungseigenschaften für die nachfolgende Schwingfestigkeitsprüfung herzustellen.
Der zweite Teil des Beitrages beschäftigt sich mit den dazugehörigen Schwingfestigkeitsuntersuchungen an den Stählen S355J2 und S960Q unter Verwendung konventioneller Zusatzwerkstoffe im Vergleich zum LTT-Zusatz. Das verwendete Schweißdetail ist eine Verbindungsschweißung am Stumpfstoß unter Variation der Schweißnahtausführung (DY-Naht und V-Naht). Weitergehend wird eine bauteilähnliche Probe (die Längssteife) untersucht, bei der der LTT-Zusatzwerkstoff als zusätzliche Schweißlage aufgebracht wurde. Neben der Schwingfestigkeit werden die Schweißnähte hinsichtlich der Eigenspannungen, der Eigenspannungsstabilität im Schwingversuch sowie metallo-grafisch charakterisiert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass LTT-Zusatzwerkstoffe unter Einhaltung wesentlicher Konstruktionsrichtlinien zu einem deutlichen Anstieg der Schwingfestigkeit führen. Dadurch kann das Leichtbaupotential hochfester Stahlgüten genutzt werden.
Additive Manufacturing (AM) through the Selective Laser Melting (SLM) route offers ample scope for producing geometrically complex parts compared to the conventional subtractive manufacturing strategies. Nevertheless, the residual stresses which develop during the fabrication can limit application of the SLM components by reducing the load bearing capacity and by inducing unwanted distortion, depending on the boundary conditions specified during manufacturing. The present study aims at characterizing the residual stress states in the SLM parts using different diffraction methods. The material used is the nickel based superalloy Inconel 718. Microstructure as well as the surface and bulk residual stresses were characterized. For the residual stress analysis, X-ray, synchrotron and neutron diffraction methods were used. The measurements were performed at BAM, at the EDDI beamline of -BESSY II synchrotronand the E3 line -BER II neutron reactor- of the Helmholtz-Zentrum für Materialien und Energie (HZB) Berlin. The results reveal significant differences in the residual stress states for the different characterization techniques employed, which indicates the dependence of the residual state on the penetration depth in the sample. For the surface residual stresses, longitudinal and transverse stress components from X-ray and synchrotron agree well and the obtained values were around the yield strength of the material. Furthermore, synchrotron mapping disclosed gradients along the width and length of the sample for the longitudinal and transverse stress components. On the other hand, lower residual stresses were found in the bulk of the material measured using neutron diffraction. The longitudinal component was tensile and decreased towards the boundary of the sample. In contrast, the normal component was nearly constant and compressive in nature. The transversal component was almost negligible. The results indicate that a stress re-distribution takes place during the deposition of the consecutive layers. Further investigations are planned to study the phenomenon in detail.
Ausgehend vom derzeit vorrangigen Einsatz in Mobilkranen, kommen höherfeste Feinkornbaustähle mit Streck-grenzen ab 960 MPa zunehmend auch in anderen modernen Stahlkonstruktionen zur Anwendung. Dies ist auf-grund aktueller Forderungen nach Energie- und Ressourceneffizienz im Sinne des konstruktiven Leichtbaus viel-fach notwendig. Die Verwendung höherfester Stähle sowie deren schweißtechnische Verarbeitung, insbesondere in sicherheitsrelevanten Tragstrukturen, erfordert ein tiefgreifendes Verständnis der Zusammenhänge zwischen Schweißverfahren, Wärmeeinbringung, Abkühlbedingungen sowie den daraus resultierenden metallurgischen Vor-gängen in der Schweißnaht und den nahtnahen Bereichen. Vorwiegend werden höherfeste Güten mittels MAG-Prozess geschweißt. Bedeutende Fortschritte in der Regelungstechnik führten unter den Herstellern von Schweiß-stromquellen in den letzten Jahren zur Entwicklung zahlreicher modifizierter Sprühlichtbogenprozesse (mod. SLB). Diese Prozesse ähneln sich in ihren Eigenschaften und ermöglichen die bekannten positiven Aspekte, wie Einspa-rung an Schweißzusatz sowie Schweiß- und Rüstzeit aufgrund der Möglichkeit reduzierter Nahtöffnungswinkel. Der mod. SLB bedingt zusammen mit einer anderen Nahtgeometrie veränderte Naht- und Schweißraupenquerschnitte sowie einen abweichenden Lagenaufbau. Diese wirtschaftlich-technisch attraktive Möglichkeit reduzierter Nahtöff-nungswinkel findet in den Regelwerken zur schweißtechnischen Verarbeitung höherfester Feinkornbaustähle unter Vermeidung von Kaltrissbildung bisher keine Berücksichtigung. Dabei gilt es, gerade die Interaktion der Hauptein-flussgrößen auf die Kaltrissbildung unter reduziertem Nahtöffnungswinkel zu betrachten. Im Rahmen zweier AiF-Forschungsvorhaben (IGF-Nr. 17.978 N, 18.596 BR) wurde daher der Einfluss der Wärmeführung anhand verglei-chender Mehrlagenschweißungen mittels konventionellem Übergangslichtbogen und mod. SLB mit angepasster Nahtkonfiguration auf schweißbedingte Beanspruchungen sowie auf die Wasserstoffkonzentration im Schweißgut untersucht.
Ausgehend vom derzeit vorrangigen Einsatz in Mobilkranen, kommen höherfeste Feinkornbaustähle mit Streckgrenzen ab 960 MPa zunehmend auch in anderen modernen Stahlkonstruktionen zur Anwendung. Dies ist aufgrund aktueller Forderungen nach Energie- und Ressourceneffizienz im Sinne des konstruktiven Leichtbaus vielfach notwendig. Die Verwendung höherfester Stähle sowie deren schweißtechnische Verarbeitung, insbesondere in sicherheitsrelevanten Tragstrukturen, erfordert ein tiefgreifendes Verständnis der Zusammenhänge zwischen Schweißverfahren, Wärmeeinbringung, Abkühlbedingungen sowie den daraus resultierenden metallurgischen Vorgängen in der Schweißnaht und den nahtnahen Bereichen. Vorwiegend werden höherfeste Güten mittels MAG-Prozess geschweißt. Bedeutende Fortschritte in der Regelungstechnik führten unter den Herstellern von Schweißstromquellen in den letzten Jahren zur Entwicklung zahlreicher modifizierter Sprühlichtbogenprozesse (mod. SLB). Diese Prozesse ähneln sich in ihren Eigenschaften und ermöglichen die bekannten positiven Aspekte, wie Einsparung an Schweißzusatz sowie Schweiß- und Rüstzeit aufgrund der Möglichkeit reduzierter Nahtöffnungswinkel. Der mod. SLB bedingt zusammen mit einer anderen Nahtgeometrie veränderte Naht- und Schweißraupenquerschnitte sowie einen abweichenden Lagenaufbau. Diese wirtschaftlich-technisch attraktive Möglichkeit reduzierter Nahtöffnungswinkel findet in den Regelwerken zur schweißtechnischen Verarbeitung höherfester Feinkornbaustähle unter Vermeidung von Kaltrissbildung bisher keine Berücksichtigung. Dabei gilt es, gerade die Interaktion der Haupteinflussgrößen auf die Kaltrissbildung unter reduziertem Nahtöffnungswinkel zu betrachten. Im Rahmen zweier AiF-Forschungsvorhaben (IGF-Nr. 17.978 N, 18.596 BR) wurde daher der Einfluss der Wärmeführung anhand vergleichender Mehrlagenschweißungen mittels konventionellem Übergangslichtbogen und mod. SLB mit angepasster Nahtkonfiguration auf schweißbedingte Beanspruchungen sowie auf die Wasserstoffkonzentration im Schweißgut untersucht.
Submerged arc welded (SAW) components of creep-resistant low-alloyed Cr-Mo-V steels are used for thick-walled heavy petrochemical reactors (wall-thickness up to 475 mm) as well as employed in construction of modern high-efficient fossil fired power plants. These large components are accompanied by significant restraints during welding fabrication, especially at positions of different thicknesses like welding of nozzles. As a result, residual stresses occur, playing a domi-nant role concerning so-called stress relief cracking (SRC) typically during post weld heat treat-ment (PWHT). Besides specific metallurgical factors (like secondary hardening due to re-precipitation), high tensile residual stresses are a considerable influence factor on SRC. For the assessment of SRC susceptibility of certain materials mostly mechanical tests are applied which are isolated from the welding process. Conclusions regarding the influence of mechanical factors are rare so far. The present research follows an approach to reproduce loads, which occur during welding of real thick-walled components scaled to laboratory conditions by using tests designed on different measures. A large-scale slit specimen giving a high restraint in 3 dimensions by high stiffness was compared to a medium-scale multi-pass welding U-profile specimen showing a high degree of restraint in longitudinal direction and a small-scale TIG-re-melted specimen. The small-scale specimens were additionally subjected to mechanical bending to induce loads that are found during fabrication on the real-scale in heavy components. Results show for all three cases compa-rable high tensile residual stresses up to yield strength with high gradients in the weld metal and the heat affected zone. Those high tensile stresses can be significant for cracking during further PWHT.
Having been introduced almost two decades ago, Additive Manufacturing (AM) of metals has become industrially viable for a large variety of applications, including aerospace, automotive and medicine. Powder bed techniques such as Selective Laser Melting (SLM) based on layer-by-layer deposition and laser melt enable numerous degrees of freedom for the geometrical design. Developing during the manufacturing process, residual stresses may limit the application of SLM parts by reducing the load bearing capacity as well as induce unwanted distortion depending on the boundary conditions specified in manufacturing.
The residual stress distribution in IN718 elongated prisms produced by SLM was studied non-destructively by means of neutron (bulk) and laboratory X-ray (surface) diffraction. The samples with different scanning strategies, i.e. hatching length, were measured in as-build condition (on a build plate) and after removal from the build plate.
The absolute values of all stress components decreased after removal from the build plate. Together with surface scan utilizing a coordinate-measuring machine (CMM), it is possible to link the stress release to the sample distortion. Obtained results indicated different residual stress states for each of the transversal, longitudinal and normal component depending on the thermal gradient in the respective direction.
Having been introduced almost two decades ago, Additive Manufacturing (AM) of metals has become industrially viable for a large variety of applications, including aerospace, automotive and medicine. Powder bed techniques such as Selective Laser Melting (SLM) based on layer-by-layer deposition and laser melt enable numerous degrees of freedom for the geometrical design. Developing during the manufacturing process, residual stresses may limit the application of SLM parts by reducing the load bearing capacity as well as induce unwanted distortion depending on the boundary conditions specified in manufacturing.
The residual stress distribution in IN718 elongated prisms produced by SLM was studied non-destructively by means of neutron (bulk) and laboratory X-ray (surface) diffraction. The samples with different scanning strategies, i.e. hatching length, were measured in as-build condition (on a build plate) and after removal from the build plate.
The absolute values of all stress components decreased after removal from the build plate. Together with surface scan utilizing a coordinate-measuring machine (CMM), it is possible to link the stress release to the sample distortion. Obtained results indicated different residual stress states for each of the transversal, longitudinal and normal component depending on the thermal gradient in the respective direction.
Investigations on weldability often deal with hot cracking as one of the most prevalent failure mechanisms during weld fabrication. The modified varestraint transvarestraint hot cracking test (MVT) is well known to assess the hot cracking susceptibility of materials. The shortcoming of this approach is that the information is only from the very near surface region which inhibits access to the characteristic of the hot crack network in the bulk. Here, we report about an alternative approach to monitor the entire 3D hot crack network after welding by means of microfocus X-ray computer tomography (µCT). However, to provide sufficient high spatial resolution small samples must be sectioned from the MVT-welded joint. The sampling is accompanied by local relaxation of the residual stress distributions that are induced by welding, which can have an impact on the crack volumes prior to the sampling. The studies were carried out to investigate the hot cracking susceptibility of low transformation temperature filler materials (LTT). As high compression residual stresses up to -600 MPa in the area of the crack networks were determined by means of the contour method, stress relaxation caused by sectioning for µCT sample extraction can affect the detectability of the cracks later on. X-ray diffraction studies revealed surface residual stress relaxations up to about 400 MPa due to cutting. To investigate this effect, the specimens with hot cracks were subjected to a load test with known stress states. The results clearly show that local stress relaxations will have a strong impact on the volume images reconstructed from tomography analysis. This effect must be considered during hot crack assessment on basis of µCT data.
High-strength steels are increasingly applied in modern steel constructions to meet today’s lightweight requirements. Welding of these steels demands a profound knowledge of the interactions between the welding process, cooling conditions, heat input and the resulting metallurgical occurrences in the weld and its vicinity. Additionally, welding stresses may be detrimental for the safety and performance of high-strength steel component welds during fabrication and service, especially due to the high yield ratio. For a development of strategies to adjust welding heat control, all these effects should be considered, to reach a complete exploitation of the high-strength steel potential. In recent researches at BAM, multilayer GMAW experiments were performed with high-strength steels, in which cooling conditions and resulting microstructure were analysed for varied heat control parameters. The application of a unique 3d-operating testing facility and X-ray diffraction measurements allowed the analysis of local stresses in the weld while welding and cooling under component relevant shrinkage restraints. As a result, correlations between material behaviour, welding and cooling condition and the arising multi-axial stresses and forces were found. Based on this study, statements for the development of adapted heat control concepts were derived, which are presented by means of specific analysis examples.
High-strength low-alloyed (HSLA) steels with yield strength ≥ 690 MPa are gaining popularity in civil engineering and construction of heavy vehicles. With increasing yield strength, the susceptibility for degradation of the mechanical properties in presence of diffusible hydrogen, i.e. hydrogen-assisted cracking (HAC) generally increases. HAC is a result of the critical interaction of local microstructure, mechanical load and hydrogen concentration. In existing standards for welding of HSLA steels, recommendations like working temperatures and dehydrogenation heat treatment (DHT) are given to limit the amount of introduced hydrogen during welding. The recommendations are based on investigations with conventional arc welding processes. In the past decade, modern weld technologies were developed to enable welding of narrower weld seams with V-grooves of 30°, e.g. the modified spray arc process. In that connection, a reduced number of weld runs and weld volume are important technical and, hence, economic benefits. In the present study, the hydrogen distribution in S960QL multi-layer welds with thickness of 20 mm was analyzed. The influence of different weld seam opening angles, heat input, working temperature and DHT was investigated. The results show that weldments with narrow groove contained increased diffusible hydrogen amount. Hydrogen concentration has been reduced by decreasing both the heat input and working temperature. Hydrogen free weldments were only achieved via subsequent DHT after welding. Furthermore, hydrogen distribution was experimentally determined across the weld seam thickness in HSLA GMA welded multi-layer welds for the first time.
Carrier gas hot extraction (CGHE) is a commonly applied technique for determination of hydrogen in welded joints using a thermal conductivity device (TCD) for quantitative measurement. The CGHE is based on the accelerated hydrogen effusion due to thermal activation at elevated temperatures. The ISO 3690 standard suggests different specimen geometries as well as necessary minimum extraction time vs. temperature. They have the biggest influence on precise hydrogen determination. The present study summarizes the results and experience of numerous test runs with different specimen temperatures, geometries and factors that additionally influence hydrogen determination. They are namely: specimen surface (polished/as-welded), limited TCD sensitivity vs. specimen volume, temperature measurement vs. effects of PID-furnace controller as well as errors due to insufficient data assessment. Summarized, the temperature is the driving force of the CGHE. Two different methods are suggested to increase the heating rate up the reach the desired extraction temperature without changing the experimental equipment. Suggestions are made to improve the reliability of hydrogen determination depended on the hydrogen signal stability during extraction accompanied by evaluation of the recorded data. Generally, independent temperature measurement with calibration specimens is useful for further data analysis, especially if this data is used for calculation of trapping kinetics by thermal desorption analysis (TDA).
Der zunehmende Bedarf an hochfesten Feinkornbaustählen in modernen Schweißkonstruktionen, in einer deutlich wachsenden Anzahl von Branchen wie dem Hoch-, Anlagen- und Kranbau, führte in den letzten Jahren zur Entwicklung zahlreicher Grund- und Zusatzwerkstoffe. Neben der Erreichung anforderungsgerechter mechanischer Eigenschaften wird die wirtschaftliche Verarbeitung dieser Güten durch hohe Sicherheitsanforderungen an die Schweißnaht bestimmt. Hohe Zugeigenspannungen in der Schweißverbindung können die Beanspruchbarkeit und Sicherheit eines geschweißten Bauteils wesentlich reduzieren. Insbesondere bei einer hohen konstruktiven Schrumpfbehinderung können die Beanspruchungen auch schon während der Fertigung ein risskritisches Niveau erreichen.
Mittels geeigneten Wärmeführungen beim Schweißen und der adäquaten Auswahl von Schweißprozess und Zusatzwerkstoffen ist sowohl eine Minimierung der sich lokal in der Naht bildenden Zugeigenspannungen als auch der globalen infolge von Abstützeffekten auftretenden Reaktionsspannungen und -momente erzielbar. Im Rahmen zweier AiF-Forschungsvorhaben IGF.-Nr. 17267 N und 17978 N wurden verschiedene experimentelle Beanspruchungsanalysen durchgeführt, um den Schweißprozess hinsichtlich der resultierenden schweißbedingten Beanspruchungen zu untersuchen. Hierfür war es erforderlich, die Steifigkeitsverhältnisse so wie sie beim Schweißen realer Bauteilstrukturen auftreten, auf Schweißexperimente im Labor zu übertragen.
Dazu wurde bspw. eine an der BAM eigens entwickelte Prüfanlage eingesetzt, mit der die mehraxialen Belastungen analysiert wurden, die mit bis zu 2 MN beim Vorwärmen, Schweißen und Abkühlen auftreten. Die Schweißeigenspannungen wurden mittels Röntgendiffraktometrie bestimmt. Zwar zeigten sich für niedrige Arbeitstemperaturen beim Schweißen ein signifikant reduziertes Gesamtbeanspruchungsniveau nach der Abkühlung der gesamten Schweißnaht. Die langen Abkühlphasen während der mehrlagigen schweißtechnischen Fertigung führen jedoch speziell bei den ersten Schweißraupen zu sehr hohen Reaktionsspannungen. Dabei erwiesen sich schmalere Nahtfugen verbunden mit dem Einsatz modifizierter Schweißprozesse und der Einsatz dehnfähiger Schweißzusätze für das Wurzelschweißen als geeignete Mittel, um eine deutliche Absenkung des Beanspruchungsniveaus beim Schweißen unter Schrumpfbehinderung zu erreichen. Ferner ist damit eine weitere wesentliche Reduzierung der Gesamtbeanspruchung und insbesondere der Zugeigenspannungen in der WEZ möglich. Mithilfe dieser Erkenntnisse ist die Optimierung der schweißbedingten Beanspruchungen unter Nutzung einer adaptierten Wärmeführung zur verbesserten Ausnutzung des Festigkeitspotentials höherfester Feinkornbaustähle erreichbar.
Der zunehmende Bedarf an hochfesten Feinkornbaustählen in modernen Schweißkonstruktionen, in einer deutlich wachsenden Anzahl von Branchen wie dem Hoch-, Anlagen- und Kranbau, führte in den letzten Jahren zur Entwicklung zahlreicher Grund- und Zusatzwerkstoffe. Neben der Erreichung anforderungsgerechter mechanischer Eigenschaften wird die wirtschaftliche Verarbeitung dieser Güten durch hohe Sicherheitsanforderungen an die Schweißnaht bestimmt. Hohe Zugeigenspannungen in der Schweißverbindung können die Beanspruchbarkeit und Sicherheit eines geschweißten Bauteils wesentlich reduzieren. Insbesondere bei einer hohen konstruktiven Schrumpfbehinderung können die Beanspruchungen auch schon während der Fertigung ein risskritisches Niveau erreichen.
Mittels geeigneten Wärmeführungen beim Schweißen und der adäquaten Auswahl von Schweißprozess und Zusatzwerkstoffen ist sowohl eine Minimierung der sich lokal in der Naht bildenden Zugeigenspannungen als auch der globalen infolge von Abstützeffekten auftretenden Reaktionsspannungen und -momente erzielbar. Im Rahmen zweier AiF-Forschungsvorhaben IGF.-Nr. 17267 N und 17978 N wurden verschiedene experimentelle Beanspruchungsanalysen durchgeführt, um den Schweißprozess hinsichtlich der resultierenden schweißbedingten Beanspruchungen zu untersuchen. Hierfür war es erforderlich, die Steifigkeitsverhältnisse so wie sie beim Schweißen realer Bauteilstrukturen auftreten, auf Schweißexperimente im Labor zu übertragen.
Dazu wurde bspw. eine an der BAM eigens entwickelte Prüfanlage eingesetzt, mit der die mehraxialen Belastungen analysiert wurden, die mit bis zu 2 MN beim Vorwärmen, Schweißen und Abkühlen auftreten. Die Schweißeigenspannungen wurden mittels Röntgendiffraktometrie bestimmt. Zwar zeigten sich für niedrige Arbeitstemperaturen beim Schweißen ein signifikant reduziertes Gesamtbeanspruchungsniveau nach der Abkühlung der gesamten Schweißnaht. Die langen Abkühlphasen während der mehrlagigen schweißtechnischen Fertigung führen jedoch speziell bei den ersten Schweißraupen zu sehr hohen Reaktionsspannungen. Dabei erwiesen sich schmalere Nahtfugen verbunden mit dem Einsatz modifizierter Schweißprozesse und der Einsatz dehnfähiger Schweißzusätze für das Wurzelschweißen als geeignete Mittel, um eine deutliche Absenkung des Beanspruchungsniveaus beim Schweißen unter Schrumpfbehinderung zu erreichen. Ferner ist damit eine weitere wesentliche Reduzierung der Gesamtbeanspruchung und insbesondere der Zugeigenspannungen in der WEZ möglich. Mithilfe dieser Erkenntnisse ist die Optimierung der schweißbedingten Beanspruchungen unter Nutzung einer adaptierten Wärmeführung zur verbesserten Ausnutzung des Festigkeitspotentials höherfester Feinkornbaustähle erreichbar.
High-strength steels are increasingly applied in modern steel constructions to meet today’s lightweight requirements. Welding of these steels demands a profound knowledge of the interactions between the welding process, cooling conditions, heat input and the resulting metallurgical occurrences in the weld and its vicinity. Additionally, welding stresses may be detrimental for the safety and performance of high-strength steel component welds during fabrication and service, especially due to the high yield ratio. For a development of strategies to adjust welding heat control, all these effects should be considered, to reach a complete exploitation of the high-strength steel potential. In recent researches at BAM, multilayer GMAW experiments were performed with high-strength steels, in which cooling conditions and resulting microstructure were analysed for varied heat control parameters. The application of a unique 3d-operating testing facility and X-ray diffraction measurements allowed the analysis of local stresses in the weld while welding and cooling under component relevant shrinkage restraints. As a result, correlations between material behaviour, welding and cooling condition and the arising multi-axial stresses and forces were found. Based on this study, statements for the development of adapted heat control concepts were derived, which are presented by means of specific analysis examples.
Neutron cameras allow visualizing hydrogen distributions with radiographic or tomographic imaging methods in iron and steel. The necessary contrast between hydrogen and iron stems from the high difference in the total neutron cross section of both elements. This allows e.g. the in situ measurement of hydrogen mass flow inside cm thick steel samples with a temporal resolution of 20 s using neutron radiography as well as the quantitative measurement of hydrogen accumulations at the crack’s inner surfaces in hydrogen embrittled iron samples with neutron tomography. We could detect directly gaseous hydrogen in the crack cavities and we measured the gas pressure. This new quality of the information on a micrometer scale allows new insights for the analysis of hydrogen-induced damage mechanisms. Further, this method is non-destructive and provides local information in situ and in three dimensions with a spatial resolution of 20-30 µm. In this contribution, we show examples that demonstrate the spatial and temporal resolution of the neutron radiography and tomography methods in order to visualize and quantify hydrogen accumulations at cracks. The measurements were performed at the research reactor BER II of the HZB in Berlin and at the FRM II reactor of the neutron source Heinz Maier-Leibnitz in Garching.
High-strength low-alloyed (HSLA) steels with yield strength ≥ 690 MPa have increasing importance in steel construction and civil engineering. However, weld processing of those steels is a major challenge. The susceptibility for degradation of mechanical properties of weld joints significantly increases in presence of hydrogen and can result in hydrogen assisted cracking (HAC). Generally, risk for HAC increases with increasing yield strength of HSLA steels. To minimize the incidence of HAC, it is essential to gain knowledge about both the (1) absorbed hydrogen amount and its distribution in the weld seam and (2) options to lower
the amount of introduced hydrogen. Existing standards recommend heat treatment procedures (interpass temperature or post weld heat treatment) to reduce the diffusible hydrogen concentration in weldments. In this context, different weld seam geometries should be considered. For HSLA steel fabrication weld processing with seam opening angles of 45° to 60° is typical. Modern weld technologies allow welding with seam opening angles of 30° - reduced welding time and costs. In the present study, the hydrogen distribution in multi-layer welds of a 960 MPa HSLA steel was analysed. Influence of different seam opening angles as well as heat input, interpass temperature and post weld heat treatments were investigated. The welded samples were quenched in ice water immediately after welding and subsequently stored in liquid nitrogen. After defined warming up, small specimens were machined from the weld seam by water jet cutting. The diffusible hydrogen concentration was measured by carrier gas hot extraction with coupled mass spectrometer. The results showed, that low heat input and post weld heat treatment procedures can lower hydrogen concentrations in welds. Furthermore, a gradient of the hydrogen concentration was
identified with increasing weld pool depth. By varying the seam opening angles different hydrogen concentrations were
measured.
Chemical composition of the welding seam and HAZ has significant effect on weld quality. Current inspection methods for weld seams measure and investigate post factum and cannot prevent weld defects. Element burn-off may significantly affect solidification leading to embrittlement or cracking Control of weld chemical compositions insures a controlled solidification and resistance to related weld defects.
Additive Manufacturing (AM) of metals has become industrially viable for a large variety of applications, including aerospace, automotive and medicine. Powder bed techniques such as Selective Laser Melting (SLM) based on layer-by-layer deposition and laser melt enable numerous degrees of freedom for the geometrical design. Developing during the manufacturing process, residual stresses may limit the application of SLM parts by reducing the load bearing capacity as well as induce unwanted distortion depending on the boundary conditions specified in manufacturing.
The residual stress distribution in the bulk of IN718 elongated prisms produced by SLM was studied non-destructively by means of neutron diffraction. The samples with different scanning strategies, i.e. hatching length, were measured in as-build condition (on a build plate) and after removal from the build plate.
The absolute values of all stress components decreased after removal from the build plate. Together with surface scan utilizing a coordinate-measuring machine (CMM), it is possible to link the stress release to the sample distortion. Obtained results indicated different residual stress states for each of the transversal, longitudinal and normal component depending on the thermal gradient in the respective direction.