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High-strength fine-grained structural steels have great potential for modern weight optimized steel construc-tions. Efficient manufacturing and further weight savings are achievable due to Wire Arc Additive Manu-facturing (WAAM). First commercial high-strength welding consumables for WAAM are already available. However, the application is still severely limited due to a lack of knowledge and guidelines for the industry regarding welding residual stresses and component safety in manufacturing and operation. Residual stresses may be critical regarding the special microstructure of high-strength steels in context with the risk of cold cracking and component performance in service. Therefore, process- and material-related influences, as well as the design effects on residual stress formation and cold cracking, are being investi-gated in a research project (IGF 21162 BG) focusing a high-strength WAAM welding consumable with yield strength of over 800 MPa. Objectives are the establish-ment of special WAAM cold cracking tests and pro-cessing recommendations allowing economical, suita-ble, and crack-safe WAAM of high-strength steels. First studies on process-related influences showed transfor-mation residual stresses arising during cooling, which significantly influence stress evolution of the compo-nent during layer-wise build-up. This has not yet been investigated for WAAM of high-strength steels. Focus of this study is on the systematic investigation of interactions of the WAAM welding process and design with cooling time, hardness, and residual stresses.
Defined open hollow cuboids were welded and investi-gated under systematic variation (design of experi-ments, DoE) of the scale/dimensions (cf. Fig. 1a) and heat control (interlayer temperature Ti: 100–300 °C), heat input E: 200–650 kJ/m. The welding parameters were kept constant as possible to avoid any influence by the arc and the material transfer mode. The heat input adjusted primarily via the welding speed. The resulting different weald bead widths were considered by different build-up strategies (weld beads per layer) to ensure defined wall thicknesses. The hardness was determined on cross-sections taken from the manufac-tured hollow cuboids (Fig. 1c) and the analysis of the residual stress state was carried out by means of X-ray diffraction (XRD) at defined positions on the lateral wall (Fig. 1b).
The hardness is higher at the top compared to the lower weld beads, as shown in Fig. 1c exemplarily for central test parameters of the DoE = 425 kJ/mm, Ti = 200 °C). This may be attributed to the specific heat control of the top weld beads, i.e., quenching effects, which are not tempered by weld beads above as is the case for lower weld beads implying a higher hardness. It was observed that the hardness level decreases with increasing energy per unit length, while the in-terpass temperature has a rather low influence on the hardness
Residual stress analysis was performed on the lat-eral wall in the welding direction, cf. Fig. 1b, to deter-mine the influence of heat control and design. In the top area of the wall, maximum longitudinal residual stress-es of up to over 500 MPa exhibit, which corresponds to approx. 65% of the nominal yield strength of the mate-rial. The statistic evaluation of stress levels in welding direction of all test specimens show that adaption of heat input may reduce welding stresses up to 50%. In-terpass temperature has less pronounced effect on cool-ing times, microstructure, and on the residual level within parameter matrix. Overall, the results show a significant influence of heat input and component di-mensions on the residual stresses and minor effect of the interpass temperature. Hence, the properties of the specimens may be effectively adjusted via heat input. The working temperatures should be considered for global shrinkage behavior or restraints. Such investiga-tions of residual stress are necessary to further deter-mine local and global welding stresses regarding the consequences on the component safety during manu-facturing and service.
Commercial high-strength filler metals for wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) are already available. However, widespread industrial use is currently limited due to a lack of quantitative knowledge and guidelines regarding welding stresses and component safety during manufacture and operation for WAAM structures. In a joint research project (FOSTA-P1380/IGF21162BG), the process- and material-related as well as design influences associated with residual stress formation and the risk of cold cracking are being investigated. For this purpose, reference specimens are welded fully automated with defined dimensions and systematic variation of heat control using a special, high-strength WAAM filler metal (yield strength >790 MPa). Heat control is varied by means of heat input (200–650 kJ/m) and interlayer temperature (100–300 °C). The ∆t8/5 cooling times correspond with the recommendations of steel producers (approx. 5–20 s). Welding parameters and AM geometry are correlated with the resulting microstructure, hardness and residual stress state. High heat input leads to a lower tensile stress in the component and may cause unfavorable microstructure and mechanical properties. However, a sufficiently low interlayer temperature is likely to be suitable for obtaining adequate properties at a reduced tensile stress level when welding with high heat input. The component design affects heat dissipation conditions and the intensity of restraint during welding and has a significant influence on the residual stress. These complex interactions are analyzed within this investigation. The aim is to provide easily applicable processing recommendations and standard specifications for an economical, appropriate and crack-safe WAAM of high-strength steels.
High-strength steels have great potential for weight optimization due to reduced wall thicknesses in many modern steel constructions. Further advances in efficiency can be achieved through the application of additive manufacturing processes, such as Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM). These technologies enable the sustainable and resource-efficient manufacturing of high-strength steels into near-net-shape, efficient structures. During the production of steel structures, unacceptable defects may occur in the weld area or in the WAAM component, e.g., due to unstable process conditions. The economical solution for most of the cases is local gouging or machining of the affected areas and repair welding. With respect to the limited ductility of high-strength steels, it is necessary to clarify the effects of machining steps on the multiaxial stress state and the high design-induced shrinkage restraint. In this context, the component-related investigations in two research projects are concerned with the residual stress evolution during welding and slot milling of welds and WAAM structures made of high-strength steels with yield strengths ≥790 MPa. In-situ digital image correlation (DIC) and ex-situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to analyse the stresses and strains induced on specimens during and after milling. The systematic analyses revealed a significant interaction of the stiffness and relaxation of the specimens with the initial residual stresses induced by welding.
Determination of residual stress evolution during repair welding of high-strength steel components
(2021)
The sustainable and resource-efficient production of wind energy plants requires the use of modern high-strength fine-grain structural steels. This applies to both foundation and erection structures. During the assembly of steel structures, unacceptable defects can occasionally be found in the weld area. In most cases, the economical solution would be local thermal gouging of the affected areas and re-welding. Due to the high shrinkage restraint of the joint groove in the overall structure, the superposition of design and welding-induced residual stress can lead to crack formation and ultimately to component failure, particularly in interaction with the degradation of the microstructure and mechanical properties high-strength steels during the repair process.
In this context, component-related investigations of S500MLO and S960QL (FOSTA-P1311/IGF-Nr. 20162 N) focusing on welding residual stress evolution during local thermal gouging and rewelding. In this study, repair welding of S500MLO is carried out using in-situ digital image correlation (DIC) and ex-situ X-ray diffraction methods (XRD) to analyse strains and stresses. Therefore, self-restrained specimens were systematically gouged and rewelded with defined welding heat control (heat input, working temperature) and parameters. By means of structural mechanics calculations, geometries of self-restrained specimens were identified, that represent defined rigidity conditions of repair welds of real components. It could be shown that with increasing restraint intensity significantly higher residual stresses occur in the weld metal and heat affected zone. Furthermore, it revealed that the transverse stresses along the weld seam decrease at the weld seam ends leading to different stress state during gouging and welding. XRD analysis of the local residual stresses after cooling to RT longitudinal and transverse to the weld direction showed a good comparability with global DIC analyses.