Ingenieurwissenschaften und zugeordnete Tätigkeiten
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Eingeladener Vortrag
- nein (17)
Aus wirtschaftlichen, konstruktiven sowie ästhetischen Aspekten werden moderne Stahlbaukonstruktionen immer schlanker und leichter ausgeführt. Dazu werden zunehmend hochfeste Feinkornbaustähle mit Dehngrenzen ≥ 690 MPa eingesetzt, wodurch eine Gewichtsreduzierung von 30 % bis 50 % und eine Kostenersparnis von 5 % bis 15 % erreicht werden kann.
Das Potential hochfester Feinkornbaustähle ist unter Beachtung der heutigen Richtlinien und Regelwerke jedoch nicht ohne weiteres nutzbar. Durch das Forschungsvorhaben wurde der Einfluss der Wärmeführung auf die Eigenspannungsausbildung und Kaltrissbildung unter Berücksichtigung realitätsnaher Steifigkeitsbedingungen untersucht. Auf der Grundlage dieser Erkenntnisse wurde ein Beitrag zur Verbesserung der Verarbeitungsrichtlinien erarbeitet, welche dem Verarbeiter eine sichere schweißtechnische Verarbeitung bei verbesserter Ausnutzung der Materialeigenschaften ermöglicht. Vor allem die Tragfähigkeit und die Sicherheit der Schweißverbindung bestimmen die Bemessung der Konstruktion und somit den nachhaltigen und ökonomischen Einsatz dieser Güten. Der Zusammenhang zwischen der Höhe der entstehenden Eigenspannungen und der Wärmeführung in realen Konstruktionen ist zurzeit nur qualitativ überschaubar und führt zu einer eher konservativen Auslegung heutiger Schweißkonstruktionen. Die wirtschaftliche Verarbeitung hochfester Stähle wird neben dem Erreichen anforderungsgerechter mechanischer Eigenschaften im Schweißnahtbereich vor allem durch die Vermeidung von Kaltrissen bestimmt. Die diesbezüglichen Empfehlungen in den geltenden Regelwerken beruhen jedoch vornehmlich auf Erkenntnissen aus Laborschweißungen an Kleinproben unter freier äußerer Schrumpfung. Die Hauptursachen für die Entstehung von Eigenspannungen wie inhomogene, lokale Erwärmung und Abkühlung der schweißnahtnahen Bereiche und insbesondere die konstruktive Schrumpfbehinderung infolge umgebender Montagegruppen werden damit jedoch nicht abgebildet. Der Einfluss der Wärmeführung, insbesondere der lokalen Vorwärmung, auf die Eigenbeanspruchung einer Konstruktion ist derzeit weitgehend unbekannt.
Ziel des Forschungsvorhabens war es, den Einfluss der Wärmeführung auf die Eigenspannungsausbildung in geschweißten Konstruktionen zu quantifizieren sowie Aussagen zur Beeinflussung und Absenkung der Eigenspannungen und somit der Gesamteigenbeanspruchung von Schweißkonstruktionen zu erarbeiten. Dazu wurden durch die sukzessive Steigerung des Einspanngrades der Zusammenhang zwischen Wärmeführung und resultierender Eigenspannung unter zusätzlicher Schrumpfbehinderung geklärt. Ferner wurde die Übertragbarkeit der den Regelwerken zugrundeliegenden Kleinprobenergebnisse auf reale Konstruktionen untersucht. Mithilfe systematischer Klein- und Großlastschweißversuche an definiert schrumpfbehinderten Proben konnte der Einfluss der Wärmeführung sowohl auf die lokalen nahtnahen Eigenspannungen als auch globale Eigenbeanspruchungen durch Reaktionsspannungen analysiert werden. Es zeigte sich, dass eine Reduktion der lokalen Eigenspannungen und der Eigenbeanspruchung von geschweißten Konstruktionen durch eine geringere Wärmeeinbringung möglich ist. Eine Absenkung der Zwischenlagentemperatur erwies sich dabei unter anderem als besonders günstig. Damit ist es möglich vorhandene Wärmeführungskonzepte für hochfeste Stähle zu optimieren und dadurch die Kaltrissbildung zu vermeiden.
Dieses Dokument fasst den Projekfortschritt des BAM-Projektes "Ermittlung geeigneter Wärmeführungen zur Wasserstoffreduktion beim Schweißen höherfester Feinkornbaustähle mit modifiziertem Sprühlichtbogen" im Rahmen des Fachausschusses 1 "Schweißmetallurgie & Werkstoffverhalten" des DVS e. V. zusammen.
Quo Vadis – Kurzdarstellung
Im Fokus von Quo Vadis stehen die Qualitätssicherung von Verbundwerkstoffen und die Validierung der Zentrifugentechnologie zur quantitativen Bestimmung von Festigkeitswerten in der Beanspruchung auf Zug als Mehr-Proben-Prüfverfahren unter Verwendung einer analytischen Zentrifuge (nachfolgend als „Adhesion Analyser LUMiFrac®“ bezeichnet). Zu den Festigkeiten, die mit Hilfe des LUMiFrac® unter Verwendung aufgeklebter Prüfstempel bestimmt werden, gehören die Fügefestigkeit (FF) von Klebverbindungen, die Haftfestigkeit (HF) von Beschichtungen sowie die Verbundfestigkeit (VF) von Faserverbundwerkstoffen. Aufbauend auf zwei Funktionsmustern der analytischen Zentrifuge sollen für die genannten Anwendungsszenarien (FF, HF, VF) in Anlehnung an die geltenden Normen DIN EN 15870 „Klebstoffe – Zugprüfung zur Bestimmung der Zugfestigkeit von Stumpfklebungen“ und DIN EN ISO 4624 „Beschichtungsstoffe – Abreißversuch zur Beurteilung der Haftfestigkeit“ geeignete Prüfstrategien und -abläufe sowie zum Klebprozess kompatible Aufnahmen für den Prüfkörperverbund in der Zentrifuge entwickelt werden.
Im Ergebnis des Vorhabens soll ein automatisiertes und validiertes Mehr-Proben-Prüfverfahren zur Qualitätssicherung von Verbundfestigkeiten zur Verfügung stehen, welches neben der Hardware auch eine Software für die angepassten Prüfstrategien in Form von SOPs (standard operating procedures) bereitstellt.
Im Fokus steht die Qualitätssicherung mit Blick auf Herstellung, Modifizierung, Handling und Erprobung von PLASMA-kompatiblen Partikeln zur gepulsten in-situ Injektion von ex-situ hergestellten Partikeln für add-on Funktionen in und zur Identifikationsprüfung von BeschichTungen (PLASMA-FIT). Im Kern war zunächst zu prüfen, welche Klassen ex-situ hergestellter Partikel unterschiedlichster Materialien überhaupt bzw. unter welchen Bedingungen PLASMA-fit sind oder unter welchen Randbedingungen PLASMA-fit gemacht werden können. In den dazugehörenden Projektphasen Screening und Adaption stand dabei das komplexe Beanspruchungsszenario bestehend aus Vakuum-, Temperatur- und wenigstens kurzzeitiger Plasmabeständigkeit der ex-situ bereitgestellten Partikel im Fokus. In der Projektphase Applikation sollte dann unter Verwendung einer modifizierten Plasmaquelle (BAM-Patentanmeldung, beabsichtigte Lizenznahme durch Fa. CemeCon, Optionsvertrag) hinsichtlich der Realisierbarkeit, Prüfung und Qualitätssicherung von Plasmadispersionsschichten ein erster Praxistest zur in-situ Injektion von Partikeln in einen laufenden Beschichtungsprozess, zur Realisierung funktioneller Eigenschaften z.B. zur Identifikation oder Authentifizierung von Originalteilen, vorgenommen werden
Combining CO2 Streams from Different Emitters – A Challenge For Transport And Storage Infrastructure
(2015)
The European Directive 2009/31/EC on the geological storage of CO2 envisages an open access of CO2 streams from different emitters to a nation- or even EUwide CO2 pipeline network if CO2 stream compositions meet “reasonable minimum composition thresholds”. As of today it is not known how such “composition thresholds” may be defined and which impurity levels may be viable in practical application.
To set up recommendations for criteria and respective threshold values for CO2 stream compositions, the project “CLUSTER” will investigate how a dynamic interplay – both in terms of mass fluxes and compositions – of CO2 streams from regionally clustered CO2 sources sharing a transport and storage infrastructure will impact corrosion, e.g., of pipelines and plant components, and geochemical alteration of cap rocks and reservoir rocks. In addition, the behaviour of such a highly dynamic CCS system will be considered for an overall optimization of system design including CO2 stream mixing schemes and facilities or interim CO2 storage.
Pigments and dyes
(2015)
The present volume is the main achievement of the Research Networking Programme ‘Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies’, funded by the European Science Foundation in the years 2009–2014. It is the first attempt to introduce a wide audience to the entirety of the manuscript cultures of the Mediterranean East.
The chapters reflect the state of the art in such fields as codicology, palaeography, textual criticism and text editing, cataloguing, and manuscript conservation as applied to a wide array of language traditions including Arabic, Armenian, Avestan, Caucasian Albanian, Christian Palestinian Aramaic, Coptic, Ethiopic, Georgian, Greek, Hebrew, Persian, Slavonic, Syriac, and Turkish.
Seventy-seven scholars from twenty-one countries joined their efforts to produce the handbook. The resulting reference work can be recommended both to scholars and students of classical and oriental studies and to all those involved in manuscript research, digital humanities, and preservation of cultural heritage.
The volume includes maps, illustrations, indexes, and an extensive bibliography.
Das Laser-MSG-Hybridschweißverfahren führt bei untersuchten hochfesten Pipelinestählen API X80 und X120 reproduzierbar zu Schweißverbindungen mit anforderungsgerechten Zähigkeitseigenschaften.
Eine metallurgische Beeinflussung der Schweißnahtzähigkeit ist durch eine gezielte Auswahl des Zusatzwerkstoffes möglich, wobei die maximale Eindringtiefe des Zusatzwerkstoffes in die Tiefe der Laserhybridnaht zu beachten ist.
Die maximal erzielbare Eindringtiefe des Zusatzwerkstoffes ist auf ca. 14 mm begrenzt. Die eingesetzte Art des MSG-Lichtbogens hatte keinen erkennbaren Einfluss auf die Aufmischung im Laseranteil der Laserhybridnaht.
Die besseren Ergebnisse der Kerbschlagzähigkeit konnten mit Metallpulverdrähten erreicht werden.
Mit den erzielten gemittelten Werten der Schlagarbeit: ca. 200 J bei -60°C für X80 und ca. 53 J bei -40°C für X120 werden Anforderungen der Norm API 5L und DIN EN 10208-2 für die beiden untersuchten Grundwerkstoffe erfüllt.
Globalisierung und die beschleunigte technologische Entwicklung bringen heute für die Industrieländer Herausforderungen im Hinblick auf Wachstum, Beschäftigung und Strukturwandel mit sich, denen nur mit einer entsprechenden Innovationsdynamik und -dichte begegnet werden kann. Grundvoraussetzung hierfür ist eine leistungsfähige Forschung und Entwicklung ebenso wie Wissens- und Technologietransfer zur Umsetzung von Forschungsergebnissen in marktfähige Produkte und Dienstleistungen. Europa hat sich im Rahmen des Lissabon-Prozesses zum Ziel gesetzt, den Anteil der Forschungsausgaben am Bruttoinlandsprodukt auf 3 % zu steigern. Um die Forschungsinfrastruktur in der Bundesrepublik zu stärken und global wettbewerbsfähig zu bleiben, hat die Bundesregierung mit der Hightech-Strategie einen weiteren wichtigen Schritt zur Förderung des wissenschaftlich-technischen Fortschritts in Deutschland getan.
Forschungsprogramme sind sowohl für Forschungseinrichtungen als auch für Mittelgeber ein wichtiges Instrument für die Darstellung und Steuerung ihrer Aktivitäten. Dies gilt auch für die Bundeseinrichtungen mit Forschungs- und Entwicklungsaufgaben, zu denen die Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) zählt. Die BAM verfügt über einen klaren gesetzlichen Auftrag für die Sicherheit in Technik und Chemie. Ihre Forschung ist mit der Wahrnehmung öffentlicher Aufgaben verbunden. Das Forschungsprogramm zeigt Perspektiven im Bereich ihres Aufgabenfeldes sowie ihrer damit verbundenen Forschungsaktivitäten transparent und politisch nutzbar auf und dient darüber hinaus der Koordinierung der Ressortforschung. Das Forschungsprogramm der BAM wird alle zwei Jahre aktualisiert. Es gibt einen Überblick über die aktuellen und zukünftigen Forschungsthemen und die hierfür erforderlichen Rahmenbedingungen.
Oxidation of a Fe-13Cr alloy under water vapor at 600 °C produced a zone of nano-sized precipitation underneath the outside scale formed by iron oxides and Fe‒Cr spinel. The majority of the spinel layer shows a mixed orientation relationship to the ferritic matrix {100}α || {100}sp & <011>α || <001>sp. However, also the discovered precipitated particles are characterized by the same crystallographic orientation relationship to the respective ferritic parent grain. The habit of the precipitates is best described by a lath morphology with their main axis parallel to <100> of ferrite.
Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) in an scanning electron microscope (SEM) have been applied to characterize the oxide layer in the micrometer scale. The clearly smaller precipitates were subsequently investigated by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Specimens have been prepared by focused ion-beam (FIB) milling at an area previously characterized by EBSD. They cover the ferritic base material, but mainly the precipitation zone and the Fe‒Cr spinel layer. Energy filtered selected area diffraction (SAD) in the conventional (C)TEM and high-angle annular darkfield (HAADF) imaging in the scanning (S)TEM mode were employed in the characterization of the specimens.
Selective Electron Beam Melting (SEBM) is a promising powder bed Additive Manufacturing technique for near-net-shape manufacture of high-value titanium components. However without post-manufacture HIPing the fatigue life of SEBM parts is currently dominated by the presence of porosity. In this study, the size, volume fraction, and spatial distribution of the pores in model samples have been characterised in 3D, using X-ray Computed Tomography, and correlated to the process variables. The average volume fraction of the pores (b0.2%) was measured to be lower than that usually observed in competing processes, such as selective laser melting, but a strong relationship was found with the differentbeamstrategies used to contour ,and infill by hatching, a part section. The majority of pores were found to be small spherical gas pores, concentrated in the infill hatched region; this was attributed to the lower energy density and less focused beam used in the infill strategy allowing less opportunity for gas bubbles to escape the melt pool. Overall, increasing the energy density or focus of the beam was found to correlate strongly to a reduction in the level of gas porosity. Rarer irregular shaped pores were mostly located in the contour region and have been attributed to a lack of fusion between powder particles.
Structuring of LTCC substrates by a combination of pressure-assisted sintering and hot-embossing
(2015)
A novel technology for the structuring of LTCC surfaces is introduced. The material is shaped in a zero-shrinkage process by embossing a glassy carbon mold into the softened LTCC directly after termination of the shrinkage. Three commercially available LTCC compositions (Ceramtape GC, Heratape CT707, and DP951) were tested. Diverse raised and lowered structures including rings, grids, and characters were fabricated. Different material behavior was observed for the tested compositions. Promising results were achieved with Ceramtape GC. Embossing of precise, 40 µm deep circular cavities and 50 µm high raised characters is demonstrated. Processing of 100 × 100 mm² substrates is possible. DP951 showed very good moldability, but also unwanted material displacement due to evaporating lead. A high displacement capacity but uneven heights of embossed structures were observed on CT707 samples. SEM investigations proved the precise transfer of surface contours from the mold to the LTCC. Thereby, the high potential of the hot-embossing process for micro-patterning of LTCC is illustrated.
Amplitudes variation of GPR rebar reflection due to the influence of concrete aggregate scattering
(2015)
Dense GPR measurements of rebar reflection amplitudes Show relative variations, which can be in the order of more than 10% - 20%. Former investigations demonstrated that these variations are caused by the heterogeneity of concrete, i.e. due to the inclusion of aggregates in concrete. These amplitude variations make it difficult to analyse single reflection amplitudes in order to determine the rebar diameter or to estimate the concrete deterioration state. In a systematic study we have quantified the statistical variation of the rebar reflection amplitude for concrete covers of 6 cm, 9 cm, 12 cm, 15 cm and 18 cm, for two different grading curves and for the rebar diameters 12 mm and 28 mm. Also the influence of the wavelength has been investigated by using antennas with different centre frequencies in relation to the aggregate size. The results are discussed with regard to a quantitative amplitude evaluation of GPR measurements and also the potential of using these variations for a characterization of concrete material properties.
Explosionskenngrößen bilden die Grundlage für die Bewertung von Explosionsrisiken und für die Auslegung von Explosionsschutzmaßnahmen. Typische Kenngrößen für Gase und Dämpfe sind Explosionsgrenzen, Sauerstoffgrenzkonzentration (SGK), maximaler Explosionsdruck und maximaler zeitlicher Explosionsdruckanstieg sowie die Zündtemperatur. Explosionskenngrößen sind von der Bestimmungsmethode (z. B. Zündgefäß, Zündquelle, Kriterium für die Entzündung), den Umgebungsbedingungen (z. B. Druck, Temperatur) und dem Oxidator abhängig. Für sicherheitstechnische Betrachtungen im Explosionsschutz müssen die Kenngrößen zuverlässig und vergleichbar sein. Um die Abhängigkeit vom Bestimmungsverfahren zu minimieren, sind diese genormt. Derzeit sind die bestehenden
Normen fast ausschließlich für atmosphärische Bedingungen ausgelegt. Viele Prozesse in der chemischen Industrie werden jedoch unter nichtatmosphärischen Bedingungen (erhöhte Drücke, erhöhte Temperaturen, von Luft abweichende Oxidatoren) durchgeführt. Dadurch ergibt sich das Erfordernis, Explosionskenngrößen auch unter nichtatmosphärischen Bedingungen zu bestimmen. Vielfach werden bereits Explosionskenngrößen unter nichtatmosphärischen Bedingungen gemessen. Aufgrund der unterschiedlichen Bestimmungsverfahren sind die Ergebnisse nur bedingt vergleichbar. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden apparative Einflussparameter unter nichtatmosphärischen Bedingungen untersucht, mit dem Ziel, normungsreife Bestimmungsverfahren für Explosionskenngrößen unter nichtatmosphärischen Bedingungen zu entwickeln.
Für Verfahren zur Bestimmung der Grenzen des Explosionsbereiches (Explosionsgrenzen, SGK) wurden Untersuchungen hinsichtlich der Mindestgröße des Zündgefäßes, geeigneter Zündkriterien und geeigneter Zündquellen durchgeführt. Aus Sicherheitsgründen sollten gerade bei hohen Anfangsdrücken möglichst kleine geschlossene Zündgefäße verwendet werden. Daher wurde das druckabhängige Mindestvolumen bis zu einem Anfangsdruck von p0 = 50 bar bestimmt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass bei atmosphärischen Bedingungen Gefäße mit einem Volumen V ≥ 11 dm³ verwendet werden müssen, um den Einfluss auf die ermittelten Werte zu minimieren. Bei einem Anstieg des Anfangsdrucks verringert sich das notwendige Gefäßvolumen. Beispielsweise kann bei p0 ≥ 50 bar ein Gefäß mit einem Volumen V = 1 dm³ verwendet werden.
Als Kriterium für eine Entzündung werden häufig visuelle Zündkriterien oder Druckschwellenkriterien verwendet. In detaillierten Untersuchungen wurden visuelle Kriterien, Druckkriterien und Temperaturkriterien für sieben Brenngase bis zu einem Ausgangsdruck von p0 = 20 bar miteinander verglichen. Das zuverlässigste Kriterium für eine Entzündung unter nichtatmosphärischen Bedingungen ist eine Kombination aus einem Druckschwellenkriterium von pex/p0 ≥ 1,02 oder einem Temperaturschwellenkriterium von ΔT ≥ 100 K.
In den bisher genormten Bestimmungsverfahren für atmosphärische Bedingungen sind verschiedene Zünder beschrieben. Auch unter nichtatmosphärischen Bedingungen muss der Eintrag der Zündenergie zuverlässig, definiert und reproduzierbar erfolgen. Es wurde der Einfluss von Druck, Gemischzusammensetzung und konstruktiven Parametern (z. B. Elektrodenabstand) auf den Zündvorgang der Zündquellen explodierender Draht, Funkenzünder und Gleitfunkenzünder untersucht. Für die Analyse des Zündvorganges wurde ein optisches Verfahren entwickelt. Weiterhin wurden die Zünder kalorimetrisch hinsichtlich ihres realen Energieeintrages verglichen. Unter nichtatmosphärischen Bedingungen eignet sich ein explodierender Draht mit einem Drahthalbwellenzündgerät (bis p = 100 bar) oder ein Gleitfunkenzünder (bis p = 10 bar).
Neben Druck und Temperatur werden Explosionskenngrößen vor allem durch den verwendeten Oxidator beeinflusst. Bisher sind kaum Werte für die Explosionsbereiche von Brenngas/Inertgas/Sauerstoff-Gemischen bei hohen Anfangsdrücken vorhanden. Daher wurden die Explosionsbereiche für die ternären Gemische CH4/N2/O2 und C2H4/N2/O2 bis zu einem Anfangsdruck von p0 = 50 bar bestimmt.
Gerade in sauerstoffreichen Gemischen können Reaktionen derart schnell ablaufen, dass die Bestimmung der Explosionskenngrößen maximaler Explosionsdruck und maximaler zeitlicher Explosionsdruckanstieg nicht möglich ist. Daher wurden Untersuchungen in binären Brenngas/Sauerstoff-Gemischen bei erhöhten Ausgangsdrücken mit verschiedenen Druckmesssystemen durchgeführt. In Gemischen mit langsameren Reaktionen sind für die Druck-Zeit-Messung piezoresistive Druckaufnehmer besser geeignet. Für die Messungen bei schnelleren Reaktionen, weiter im Explosionsbereich, eignen sich eher piezoelektrische Druckaufnehmer. Damit die Druck-Zeit-Signale dieser sehr schnellen Reaktionen ausgewertet werden können, kann eine Glättung erforderlich sein. Die Messsignale wurden mit unterschiedlichen Verfahren geglättet. Die besten Ergebnisse, hinsichtlich der Genauigkeit und der Größe des Auswertebereiches, wurden mit einem Programm zu Berechnung der Verbrennungsgeschwindigkeit mittels physikalischer Modelle erzielt. Mit der Glättungsmethode dieses Verfahrens ist es möglich auch sehr schnelle Druckanstiege in sauerstoffreichen Gemischen auszuwerten.
Resultierend aus den Ergebnissen der Untersuchungen sind Empfehlungen für zwei Bestimmungsverfahren zur Messung der Explosionsgrenzen und SGK sowie des maximalen Explosionsdrucks und des maximalen zeitlichen Explosionsdruckanstieges unter nichtatmosphärischen Bedingungen erarbeitet worden.
The damage process of short glass fibre (30% weight) reinforced polyamide caused by mechanical loading was investigated from the beginning on micro cracking level to the incipient crack of mm-dimension. Based on high resolution computer tomography and the X-ray-refraction technique the inner surface due to micro-cracking at the short fibre ends and the fibre matrix debonding of the skin surface of the filament was determined quantitatively. With the knowledge of the fatigue crack propagation rate and fracture toughness of the material from former research projects, it was derived that the total inner surface due to micro cracks measured by X-ray refraction is much higher than the specimen could have withstand the load, supposed the surface is in a localized crack. Hence, the damage process could be described from micro to macro level. Accompanying fractographic investigations endorse the modelling based on the NDT-techniques.
Simple models describing the relationship between basic mechanical properties and the relative density of various types of porous metals (such as foams, sponges and lattice structures) are well established. Carefully evaluating these relationships experimentally is challenging, however, because of the stochastic structure of foams and the fact that it is difficult to systematically isolate density changes from variations in other factors, such as pore size and pore distribution. Here a new method for producing systematic sets of stochastic foams is employed based on electron beam melting (EBM) additive manufacturing (AM). To create idealised structures, structural blueprints were reverse-engineered by inverting X-ray computed tomographs of a randomly packed bed of glass beads. This three-dimensional structure was then modified by computer to create five foams of different relative density ρr, but otherwise consistent structure. Yield strength and Young’s modulus have been evaluated in compression tests and compared to existing models for foams. A power of 3 rather than a squared dependence of stiffness on relative density is found, which agrees with a recent model derived for replicated foams. A similar power of 3 relation was found for yield strength. Further analysis of the strength of nominally fully dense rods of different diameters built by EBM AM suggest that surface defects mean that the minimum size of features that can be created by EBM with similar strengths to machined samples is ∼1 mm.
This paper deals with the initiation and propagation of corrosion in mortar specimens precracked under mechanical loading and carbonated in climate accelerated conditions (50 % CO2–65 % RH)for 15–23 weeks. Mechanical loading led to transverse macro-cracks and damage at the steel-mortar interface characterized by micro-cracks (cover controlled cracking) which favour the carbonation of crack walls and the interface with the steel bar. Wetting–drying cycles performed after carbonation favoured corrosion initiation all along the steel bar because of the carbonated interface and corrosion propagation because of the creation of corrosion cracks which appear to develop from the micro-cracks induced by the mechanical load. Results also show that rust develops all around the perimeter of the carbonated steel bar but that the corrosion layer is thicker in the lower half surface of the reinforcement than that observed in the upper half. Results indicate that the distribution and composition of corrosion products depend on the thickness of the rust layer and that the multilayered structure of rust depends mainly on its thickness.
Elastic wave propagation of ultrasound in bituminous road surfaces – simulations and measurements
(2015)
Maintenance costs of road infrastructure are increasing steadily. Adverse environmental impacts on infrastructure get more and more important as well. Therefore, it is important to determine how limited financial resources can be directed with an optimum pay-out. The present study takes first steps towards the usage of low-frequency ultrasound as a tool to evaluate the road condition.
The combination of tomographic, microstructural data with other experimental techniques and with modeling is paramount, if we want to extract the maximum amount of information on material and component properties. In particular, quantitative image analysis, statistical approaches, direct discretization of tomographic reconstructions represent concrete possibilities to extend the power of the tomographic 3D representation to insights into the material and component performance. This logic thread holds equally for industrial and academic research, and valorizes expensive experiments such as those carried out at synchrotron sources, which cannot be daily repeated.
I will show a few examples of possible use of X-ray tomographic data for quantitative assessment of damage evolution and microstructural properties, as well as for non-destructive testing. Examples of micro-structured inhomogeneous materials will be given, such as Composites, Ceramics, Concrete, and Additively manufactured parts. I will also show how X-ray refraction computed tomography (CT) can be highly complementary to classic absorption CT, being sensitive to internal interfaces.
The damage process of short glass fibre (30% weight) reinforced polyamide caused by mechanical loading was investigated from the beginning on micro cracking level to the incipient crack of mm-dimension. Based on high resolution computer tomography and the X-ray-refraction technique the inner surface due to micro-cracking at the short fibre ends and the fibre matrix debonding of the skin surface of the filament was determined quantitatively. With the knowledge of the fatigue crack propagation rate and fracture toughness of the material from former research projects, it was derived that the total inner surface due to micro cracks measured by X-ray refraction is much higher than the specimen could have withstand the load, supposed the surface is in a localized crack. Hence, the damage process could be described from micro to macro level. Accompanying fractographic investigations endorse the modelling based on the NDT-techniques.
Mg-Y,RE-Zn systems present second phases with high thermal stability, promoting the increase of strength and creep resistance at high temperatures.
Mg and its alloys have a potential application as biomaterials due to their biocompatibility and degradation behaviour. The dominant corrosion mechanism in those alloys is the microgalvanic corrosion through coupling of the more noble second phases with the Mg matrix, and therefore a low concentration of those was sought.
Test procedure to characterize the cracking susceptibility of RSW-steels has been developed
During externally loaded test procedure all investigated steels (HDT780CD+Z100, HDT780C+ZE75/75, HX340LAD+Z100, HCT690TD+Z100) showed a cracking behavior
With increased specimen load, the crack length grows for the micro-alloyed-steel and TRIP-steel
Complex phase steels behavior during test procedure:
Crack length growth with increasing force could not be determined
The cracking susceptibility of electro-galvanized steels is less than hot-dip galvanized steels (in this case)
30
Experimental study and numerical simulation of hot crack formation for novel laser weldability test
(2015)
Hot cracking susceptibility in laser beam welding was assessed for several stainless steels by means of the CTW test
The strain rate has a significant influence on the formation of the hot crack
It was possible to determine the critical strain and strain rate that led to shot crack formation
A material ranking of hot cracking resistance could be made.A three-dimensional FEM using the contact element technique to simulate hot cracking during LBW under external load conditions was developed.
Good agreement between the strain field measured using the DIC technique and the simulation results
Susceptibility to hot cracking can be predicted by using FEM with the correct mechanical and thermo-physical material properties
Laser-GMA-hybrid welding of longitudinally welded large-diameter pipes of grades API- X80/ X120
(2015)
Potentials of the hybrid laser arc welding processes were investigated regarding reliable production of longitudinal welds of high strength pipe steels X80 and X120
Hybrid laser arc welding of the root pass:
Significant reduction in the weld cross section – savings of filler material
Lower heat input into the base material - improvement of mechanical properties of the weld joint
The arc type does not have any influence on the character of dilution in the laser part of the hybrid weld
14 mm deep root face was considered as optimum. No penetration of the filler material could be detected beyond this depth limit
Metal powder filler wires, micro alloyed with Ni and partly with Cr and Mo, guaranteed sufficient Charpy impact toughness at low temperature for the both investigated materials:
Hybrid laser arc welding is a very efficient process for the root pass in multi-pass welding and opens a large technical and economic potential for the manufacture of large pipes
As subcritical crack growth (SCCG) can reduce tensile strength of glasses by many orders of magni-tude, the potential for improvement of fatigue behaviour is most intriguing in developing ultra-strong glasses. An essential bottleneck is the basic understanding of the numerous interplaying pressure-, temperature- and water-affected relaxation phenomena at the crack tip and related toughening strat-egies. Therefore, the present project aims to advance the basic understanding of structural relaxa-tion effects and local properties caused by increased water concentration and tensile stresses at the crack tip as they are a key for structural toughening designs to develop SCCG-free glasses and glass surfaces.
Our first studies give clear evidence that glass structure and dynamics is strongly modified upon hy-dration of glasses. These changes are highly related to the nature of network formers but are affect-ed as well by the counter ions (network modifier). Results of the 1st project part suggest that struc-tural relaxation below glass transition temperature, i.e. overlapping of short-range (beta) and long-range (alpha) interactions can contribute to SCCG in water-free environments and that structurally dissolved water in the glasses can have decisive impact on this effect.
In the 2nd project stage specific glasses compositions will be investigated to gain an improved un-derstanding on the relation of sub-Tg relaxation and inert SCCG as well as to shed light to the relat-ed effects of dissolved water and its speciation. These glasses cover a broader range of different glass topologies and binding partners, whereby the coupling of alpha and beta relaxations is varied systematically by alkali-, alkaline earth ions and water species concentrations. Preparation of hy-drous glasses (up to 8 wt% water) will be performed by high pressure syntheses. Structure will be resolved by NMR, Raman and IR spectroscopy while structural relaxation is accessed in the temper-ature and frequency domain using dynamic mechanical spectroscopy and ultrasonic damping. We will focus on measurements of inert SCCG (region III) conducting experiments in vacuum and dry gas atmospheres using indentation techniques and stressing of glass specimens in DCB geometry.
Experimental data on SCCG will be provided to SPP groups, which deals with fatigue in metallic glasses and vice versa we will test theoretical predictions of ab-initio simulations of partner within SPP 1594 in order to quantify the effect of water on the crack tip. In summa topological factors con-trolling the subcritical crack growth with respect to water will be identified from which structural toughening designs for highly fatigue resistant-glasses can be derived.
As subcritical crack growth (SCCG) can reduce tensile strength of glasses by many orders of magnitude, the potential for improvement of fatigue behaviour is most intriguing in developing ultra-strong glasses. An essential bottleneck is the basic understanding of the numerous interplaying pressure-, temperature- and water-affected relaxation phenomena at the crack tip and related toughening strategies. Therefore, the present project aims to advance the basic understanding of structural relaxation effects and local properties caused by increased water concentration and tensile stresses at the crack tip as they are a key for structural toughening designs to develop SCCG-free glasses and glass surfaces.
Our first studies give clear evidence that glass structure and dynamics is strongly modified upon hydration of glasses. These changes are highly related to the nature of network formers but are affected as well by the counter ions (network modifier). Results of the 1st project part suggest that structural relaxation below glass transition temperature, i.e. overlapping of short-range (beta) and long-range (alpha) interactions can contribute to SCCG in water-free environments and that structurally dissolved water in the glasses can have decisive impact on this effect.
In the 2nd project stage specific glasses compositions will be investigated to gain an improved understanding on the relation of sub-Tg relaxation and inert SCCG as well as to shed light to the related effects of dissolved water and its speciation. These glasses cover a broader range of different glass topologies and binding partners, whereby the coupling of alpha and beta relaxations is varied systematically by alkali-, alkaline earth ions and water species concentrations. Preparation of hydrous glasses (up to 8 wt% water) will be performed by high pressure syntheses. Structure will be resolved by NMR, Raman and IR spectroscopy while structural relaxation is accessed in the temperature and frequency domain using dynamic mechanical spectroscopy and ultrasonic damping. We will focus on measurements of inert SCCG (region III) conducting experiments in vacuum and dry gas atmospheres using indentation techniques and stressing of glass specimens in DCB geometry.
Experimental data on SCCG will be provided to SPP groups, which deals with fatigue in metallic glasses and vice versa we will test theoretical predictions of ab-initio simulations of partner within SPP 1594 in order to quantify the effect of water on the crack tip. In summa topological factors controlling the subcritical crack growth with respect to water will be identified from which structural toughening designs for highly fatigue resistant-glasses can be derived.
Optimizing the performance of phase gratings for better visibility in Talbot- Lau interferometry
(2015)
We investigated the efficiency of phase gratings, i.e., the visibility upon variation of different parameters. Rotating around an axis parallel to the grid lines of the phase grating changes the grating’s shape and thereby the initial distribution of phase shifts. This yields high visibilities for shorter propagation distances than derived from box shapes. Tilting the grating in the scattering plane allows continuous tuning of the grating’s height that corresponds to an ideal phase shift for a particular photon energy. This opens the way for tuning the design energy suitable for the material under investigation. Our study included simulations for monochromatic sources with the sampling procedure.
Phänominilogische Studien des Blähens von bioactiven Gläsern verschiedener Zusammensetzung und Unteruschung des Einflusses einer Kristallisation. Die ausgasenden Komponenten wurden mittels Vakuumheißextraktion(VHE) und Infrarotspektroskopie identifiziert sowie der Einfluss von Korngröße, Mahldauer und -atmosphäre auf das Blähen unterucht.
Nowadays, the use of bioactive glasses is established for bone regeneration; however glasses are used mostly as powders, granules or in a paste. Sintered scaffolds are not used clinically, because of the in inherent problem of crystallization during the sintering process, resulting in poor mechanical properties and reduced bioactivity. The aim of this study was therefore to design new bioactive glasses, which combine improved processing and sintering with bioactivity.
Compared with the well-known Bioglass® 45S5 (SiO2-P2O5-CaO-Na2O) the calcium/alkalioxide ratio was increased, sodiumoxide was partially replaced by potassiumoxide and up to 8 mol% calciumflorid were added, in order to stabilize the glass against crystallization.
The sintering behavior of the new glasses was characterized by heating microscopy and compared to Bioglass® 45S5. The results showed that the new glasses achieved a sintered density of 88-99 % in contrast to only 57-67% for Bioglass® 45S5. In addition FTIR and XRD analyses showed that Bioglass® 45S5 crystallized during sintering while for the new glasses no crystalline phases were detected. The thermal properties of all glasses were studied by DTA and DSC measures, and the influence of grain size and heating rate were characterized. These studies showed a shift of start and end temperature of sintering process as well as the final density. The structure of sintered specimens during and after sintering was examined using light and electron microscopy (REM).
Bioglass® 45S5 is mainly used clinically as powders, granules or pastes instead of sintered compacts. This is due to the inherent problem of crystallization during the sintering, which results in poor mechanical properties and reduced bioactivity. Recently, new bioactive glasses with improved crystallization stability have been developed as promising candidates for manufacturing of sintered powder compacts for bone regeneration, which combine improved sintering behavior with bioactivity. Compared with the well-known Bioglass® 45S5 (SiO2-P2O5-CaO-Na2O) the calcium/alkali oxide ratio was increased, sodium oxide was partially replaced by potassium oxide and up to 3 mol% calcium fluoride were added, in order to stabilize the glass against crystallization. The aim of this study was to investigate the sintering and crystallization behavior of these new bioactive glasses.
Sintering and crystallization were characterized by heating microscopy, XRD, FTIR, SEM, and DTA. The results show that a sintered density of 88-99 % is achieved in contrast to only 57-67% for Bioglass® 45S5. In addition, FTIR and XRD analyses show that Bioglass® 45S5 crystallized during sintering while for the new glasses no crystalline phases are detected. The thermal properties of all glasses were studied by DTA measurements, and the influence of grain size was characterized. These studies showed that full densification can be attained for particle size < 32 µm, whereas coarser particles progressively increase residual porosity. Observed foaming phenomena, are strongly retarded by crystallization of beta-HAp.
To better understand the mechanism of hydrogen assisted cracking (HAC), it is important to investigate the 3D structure of the cracks non-destructively. Since, cracks introduced by HAC are usually very small, conventional x-ray imaging methods often lack the required spatial resolution.
However, the detection of those cracks can be enhanced by taking advantage of refraction at interfaces within the sample.
To image this refractive deflection we employ analyser based imaging (ABI). In this work we aim at proving the enhanced crack detection of ABI by investigating an alluminum alloy weld.
Es wird der DIN-Arbeitsausschuss Ermüdungsprüfung und seine Aufgaben vorgestellt. Ferner wird über die Thematik der thermischen Drift von Extensometern und die daraus resultierenden Fehler berichtet. Darüber hinaus werden aktuelle Aspekte der dynamischen Temperaturmessung im thermo-mechanischen Ermüdungsversuch vorgestellt.
Investigations on the tensile testing procedure conducted within the European project TENSTAND
(2015)
The current presentation shows the intention of the former European TENSTAND project on computer controlled tensile testing of metals. The history of the tensile testing standards is explained. Some test results of the TENSTAND project are shown. The presentation is focused on criticism of Chinese delegates in ISO TC 164 SC1 WG4 who stated that the TENSTAND project which was finished about 10 years ago came to wrong conclusions and were misleading. This presentation points out misunderstandings of the Chinese delegation in the test program and the results of the TENSTAND project and the former development of the tensile testing standard ISO 6892-1. Some tests of the TENSTAND project were newly evaluated using the original test data. The evaluation showed again that the conclusions of the TENSTAND project are correct.
Build-up strategies for generating components of cylindrical shape with laser metal deposition
(2015)
Laser Metal Deposition LMD) as additive manufacturing process offers the potential to produce near net shape components. This reduces the amount of material and post-processing. The components are composed of individual layers. Already mall irregularities within a layer can add up over multiple layers and lead to error propagation. This paper deals with the issue of build-up strategies to minimize irregularities and prevent error propagation. Different travel paths and the influence of a changing starting point regarding to error propagation are discussed. Different deposition rates between core and peripheral area are detected and successfully compensated by adjusting the build-up sequence. Stainless steel and titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V are used in the experiments. The results are intended to illustrate the potential of an adjusted build-up strategy and provide basic information on the way to an automated deposition process. This paper is of interest for engineers in industry or science using LMD as additive manufacturing process.
The kinetic energy of keV electrons backscattered from a rutile (TiO2) surface depends measurably on the mass of the scattering atom. This makes it possible to determine separately the angular distribution of electrons backscattered elastically from either Ti or O. Diffraction effects of these backscattered electrons inside the rutile crystal lead to the formation of Kikuchi patterns. The element-resolved Kikuchi patterns of Ti and O differ characteristically, but each can be described fairly well in terms of the dynamical theory of diffraction. Qualitatively, much of the differences can be understood by considering the relative arrangement of the Ti and O atoms with respect to planes defined by the crystal lattice.
In this paper we present results of our recent efforts to understand the mechanical interface behaviour of single-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs) embedded in metal matrices. We conducted experimental pull-out tests of CNTs embedded in Pd or Au and found Maximum forces in the range 10 - 102 nN. These values are in good agreement with forces obtained from molecular Dynamics simulations taking into account surface functional Groups (SFGs) covalently linked to the CNT material. The dominant failure mode in experiment is a CNT rupture, which can be explained with the presence of SFGs. To qualify the existence of SFGs on our used CNT material, we pursue investigations by means of fluorescence labeling of surface species in combination with Raman imaging. We also report of a tensile test system to perform pull-out tests inside a transmission electron microscope to obtain in situ images of CNT-metal interfaces under mechanical loads at the atomic scale.
CONRAD-2 is an imaging instrument using low-energy (cold) neutrons. The instrument is installed at the end of a curved neutron guide which avoids the direct line of sight towards the reactor core. This ensures a very low background of high-energy neutrons and. photons at the sample position. The cold neutron beam provides a wavelength range which is suitable for phase-and diffraction-contrast imaging such as grating interferometry and Bragg edge mapping. The instrument is well suited for high resolution imaging due to the high efficiency of the very thin scintillators that can be used for the detection of cold neutrons. An instrument upgrade was performed recently as a part of an upgrade program for the cold neutron instrumentation at HZB. The parameters of the instrument as well as some research highlights will be presented.
Nach mehr als 15-jähriger Anwendung und mit der zwischenzeitlichen Einführung europäisch harmonisierter Normen für Fugenmaterialien war eine Anpassung Qualitäts- und Gütesicherungsanforderungen für Fugenfüllungen im Bundesfernstraßenbereich erforderlich. Hierbei ging es insbesondere darum, Maßnahmen und Verfahren zu entwickeln, um das nationale Qualitäts- und Gütesicherungsniveau weiter zu entwickeln und weiterhin sicher stellen zu können. Nach den Untersuchungserfahrungen im Labor und im Feld ging darum, neuartige Material- und Stoffkombinationen qualitätssicher dem Bauprozess zur Verfügung stellen zu können. Erforderliche Anforderungskriterien und zulässige Toleranzen der Lieferqualität wurden neu gefasst. Es wurde ein Verfahren entwickelt, europäische Bauprodukte qualitätsgesichert in den Bauprozess im Bundesfernstraßenbericht zu überführen.
Unter Berücksichtigung praktischer und wissenschaftlich-technischer Erkenntnisse der letzten 15 Jahre - insbesondere auch auf der Basis verschiedener BAM-Forschungsergebnisse und Zulassungsverfahren - erfolgte eine Überarbeitung der Grundlagen, Bauprinzipien, Ausführungs- und Einbaukriterien sowie der Zulassungs- und Gütesicherungsmaßnahmen für insgesamt 4 Bauarten von Fugenfüllsystemen für hochbeanspruchte Verkehrsflächen. In diesem - für den Bundesfernstraßenbereich verbindlichen bautechnischen Regelwerk - finden insbesondere auch die Ergebnisse mehrerer wissenschaftlicher Vorhaben der BAM bezüglich labortechnischer Untersuchungen und Felduntersuchungen zum Funktionsverhalten und zur Dauerhaftigkeit erste baurechtliche Konsequenzen. Auf der Basis von Untersuchungen u.a. im Brückenbau wurden Regelungen für die Fugenausbildung in Asphalt und bei Befestigungskombinationen erarbeitet und umgesetzt. Damit konnten umfassende Regelungen für die maßgebenden Fahrbahnbeläge im Bundesfernstraßenbereich der Straßenbauverwaltung und ausführenden Industrieunternehmungen zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Die Neufassung dieser Regelungen dient darüber hinaus dem Ziel, den von der BAM vertretenen Wechsel hin zu einer performance-bezogenen Bewertungsmethodik, vorzubereiten.
The numerical simulations of high power laser keyhole welding at different welding positions are performed by using Volume-Of-Fluid (VOF) method. The main material is SS400. The multi-physics phenomenon is considered using several models, such as the heat flux of Gaussian heat source, the recoil pressure with Clausisus-Clapeyron equation, the Marangoni flow considering temperature gradient, the buoyancy force with Boussinesq approximation, the additional shear stress and heat source due to metallic vapor ejected through keyhole entrance, the bubble formation assumed as adiabatic bubble, and the multiple-reflection by solving proper discriminant, are used. To analyze the fluid flow pattern, the concept of streamline formed by reconstructing the value of the velocity vector is applied.
Partial and full penetration cases at different welding positions are considered. The welding position seems to have only a minor influence on bead formation characteristics in both cases. This is probably due to the fact that the recoil pressure has a major influence when compared to other driving forces. The flow characteristics and fluid velocity in weld pool are analyzed to compare the gravity direction effect at different welding positions. It is observed that the clockwise flow pattern is mainly formed by the recoil pressure on the keyhole surface in the case of partial penetration. The laser energy can't maintain the whole weld pool when the weld pool size becomes too large. And then the solidification starts from the middle part of weld pool and a necked weld pool shape is formed. In the full penetration welding, the weld pool flow patterns are affected by the leakage of laser power through the full penetration keyhole and also by surface tension. Furthermore, the numerical simulation of full penetration welding with AISI316L is also performed to analyze the effect of material properties. The weld bead shapes obtained by simulations were compared with the corresponding experimental results to confirm the validity of the process models adopted and the CFD simulation tool.
Glass has different outstanding material-specific properties which offer theoretically the application of thin-walled hollow fibers in the field of high pressure gas storage. Especially the storage of hydrogen as renewable and environmental friendly energy carrier is possible. Glass is an amorphous material which is characterized by a theoretical tensile strength much higher than this of other materials. However, in practice the tensile strength is decreased significantly by defects on the glass surface or in the material and its network structure. As part of this thesis the burst pressures of hollow glass fibers were determined. The burst pressure correlates very well with the tensile strength of hollow glass fibers. By using the Weibull statistic the results of different test series were evaluated in respect to failure probabilities and compared to each other. Thereby the influence of various parameters on the pressure resistance was investigated. Beside the influence of the chemical composition of the material the aging by environmental and their effect on the pressure resistance was investigated. Additionally hollow glass fibers were loaded dynamically and statically with different gases. Afterwards the burst pressure was determined and the effect of used gas on the pressure resistance could be determined as well as the impact of method and duration of loading. A further influence of the dimension of hollow glass fibers on their resistance against inner pressure load is the ratio between wall thickness and inner diameter which was investigated as well as the combination of different glasses and the utilization of their disparate coefficient of thermal expansion which lead to prestressing of the hollow glass fiber. Finally, the impact of the variation of several production parameters on the pressure resistance was determined experimentally as like as the influence of surface coatings. These shall protect the glass surface from subsequently procured defects and, hence, increase the pressure resistance. As essential part of current thesis the defect analysis of test samples of various series was done whereby the differentiation between material and production dependent defects was important. Not only a light microscope but a scanning electron microscope was used for the investigation, as well. Beside volume defects like bubbles or inclusions surface defects in the form of scratches or spalling can be detected and observed. A calculation of the failure-causing defect size from measured burst pressure is possible. Dependent on the dimension and determined burst pressure value of each single fiber defect sizes of less than one micron were calculated. Particularly the geometry of the test samples inappropriate for many examination methods and the fact that the calculated defect size occurs only under loaded conditions at actual burst pressure the local detection of corresponding defect rendered impossible. In the end, the present thesis shows the pressure resistance of hollow glass fibers and their potential to store safely gases under high pressure.
The influence of temperature and counterbody material on the tribological properties of a-C:H
coatings deposited on Cronidur 30 steel has been investigated in a lubricated ball on disk
contact situation with alpha-alumina and silicon nitride as counterbodies. The results show, that the wear volumes of the systems increase exponentially with increasing temperature, for alpha-alumina more than for silicon nitride. Two different wear mechanisms seem to have a
major influence: First, the abrasive action due to materials hardness and second, the tribo-oxidation when silicon nitride is counter material.
Many industrial processes are run at non-atmospheric conditions (elevated temperatures and pressures, other oxidizers than air). To judge whether and if yes to what extent explosive gas(vapor)/air mixtures will occur or may be generated during malfunction it is necessary to know the safety characteristic data at the respective conditions. Safety characteristic data like Explosion limits, are depending on pressure, temperature and the oxidizer. Most of the determination methods are standardized for ambient conditions.
In order to obtain determination methods for non-atmospheric conditions, particularly for higher initial pressures, reliable ignition criteria were investigated. Ignition tests at the explosion Limits were carried out for mixtures of methane, propane, n-butane, n-hexane, hydrogen, ammonia and acetone in air at initial pressures up to 20 bar. The tests have been evaluated according to different ignition criteria: visual flame propagation, temperature and pressure rising. It could be shown that flame propagation and occasionally self-sustained combustion for several seconds occurred together with remarkable temperature rise, although the pressure rise was below 3%. The results showed that the combination of a pressure rise criterion of 2% and a temperature rise criterion of 100 K seems to be a suitable ignition criterion for the determination of explosion limits and limiting oxidizer concentration at higher initial pressures and elevated temperatures. The tests were carried out within the framework of a R&D project founded by the German Ministry of Economics and Technology.
In the past few years, the share of earthen building materials used in constructions in Central Europe has increased. That is due to growing acknowledgement of its qualities regarding balancing of humidity, absorption of odours and acoustical insulation.
To regulate these (mostly indoor) uses, the German Institute for Standardization (DIN) has published norms for adobe, earth mortar for masonry and earth plaster. In addition to these traditional building materials, earthen panels have been developed. As an ecological alternative to gypsum plaster boards, they combine climatic advantages of traditional materials with economic advantages of industrial processing, i.e. prefabrication and drywall techniques. Earthen panels are a composite layered material, comparable to Textile Reinforced Concrete (TRC). Most products contain an inner layer of reed tubes which improve the tensile strength and reduce the weight. Often, one or both surfaces are reinforced with a fibrous net to prevent cracks in the plastering that is usually applied on top. Additives range from straw to expanded clay. Special panels contain waxes that improve their heat storage capacity or water pipes to allow the usage as flat heating and cooling systems.
Experimental study and numerical simulation of hot crack formation for novel laser weldability test.
(2015)
Laser beam welding is a widely established manufacturing process in several industries. The solidification cracking seriously effecting the safety of welded joints could arise during the beam welding of stainless steels caused by high solidification rates. In this study the controlled tensile weldability test (CTW) was used to investigate the solidification cracking susceptibility the fully austenitic stainless steels CrMnNi (1.4376), CrNi (1.4301), CrNiMo (1.4404) and CrNiSi (1.4828) during laser beam welding. The test facility allows welding of specimens with simultaneous application of tensile load along or cross to the welding direction while the speed of tensile force application is either constant or increases linearly. The tensile force increment and/or the displacement are set by means of a CNC controller. Trials were conducted by varying the ultimate tensile strain and cross-head speed while keeping the welding parameters constant. By observing the crack-no crack behaviour and estimating the generated crack length for each trail using a new optimized experimental procedure the influence of the two important conditions (the strain and the strain rate) for the formation of solidification cracks can be investigated, the critical values of strain and strain rate that are responsible for solidification cracking formation have been determined. In the present study a three-dimensional FEM using the contact element technique was developed to simulate the solidification cracking during laser full penetration welding under external load conditions for the steel 1.4376 in order to get a better understanding of the mechanisms of hot crack initiation and the theoretical results were compared to the experimental ones. By comparing the resulting solidification crack with simulated crack, it is possible to determine the critical condition of solidification crack formation in the region where the strains and the strain rates cannot be measured due to the high temperature. The results show a good agreement between numerical calculation and experiment. It is proposed that the solidification cracking susceptibility may be predicted by FEM analysis by using the correct mechanical and thermo-physical constants of the materials.
The new standard ‘ISO 17636-2:2013: Non-destructive testing of welds — Radiographic testing — Part 2: X- and gamma-ray techniques with digital detectors’, defines the practice for radiographic inspection of welded pipes for manufacturing and in-service inspection. It is applied in Europe for inspections of pipe welds in nuclear power plants as well as in chemical plants and allows a faster inspection with digital detector arrays (DDA) than with film. Nevertheless, it does not allow the evaluation of the depth and shape of volumetric and planar indications. In 2001 a planar tomography scanner, TomoCAR, was introduced for mechanized radiographic testing (RT) inspection and non-destructive measurement of cross sections. The project TomoWELD is based on a new concept of the scan geometry, an enhanced GPU based reconstruction, and the application of a new generation of photon counting DDAs based on CdTe crystal CMOS hybrids. The new detector permits the selection of energy thresholds to obtain an optimum energy range and reduction of the influence of scattered radiation. The concept and first measurements are presented. Flaw depth and shape of volumetric and planar irregularities can be determined.
Laser welding is a widely established manufacturing process in many industry sectors. Solidification cracking represents one of the most inadequately solved problems in welding and has major economic implications. The avoidance of hot crack is for most fusion welding processes a key challenge for an important range of metallic construction materials and affects not only the manufacturers of welding equipment and material manufacturers, but also a large number of customers using welding technologies, as well as welding standardization and research. In this study a new investigation programme has been developed to qualify the hot cracking susceptibility of a variety of austenitic stainless steels. The results show the possibility of using this technique to determinate the critical values that occur with initiation of solidification cracking during laser beam welding
Solidification cracking phenomena taking place under Controlled Tensile Weldability (CTW) test conditions have already been investigated both experimentally and numerically via FEA in order to get a better understanding of the mechanisms of hot crack formation during laser beam welding of austenitic steel grades. This paper develops a three dimensional finite element model employing the contact elements technique to simulate the formation and propagation of solidification cracks during laser full penetration welding of fully austenitic stainless steel 1.4376. During the experimental procedure the resulting strain and displacement directed to the laser beam in the Close vicinity of the weld pool was measured at the surface of the workpiece using a Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique with an external diode laser as an illuminating source. Local strain fields, global loads and crack lengths predicted by the model are in good Agreement with those observed in experiments.
Laser welding is a widely established manufacturing process in many industry sectors. Solidification cracking represents one of the most inadequately solved problems in welding and has major economic implications. The avoidance of hot crack forms for most fusion welding processes poses a key challenge for an important range of metallic construction materials and affects not only the manufacturers of welding equipment and material manufacturers, but also a large number of customers using welding technologies, as well as welding technical standardization and research. Solidification cracking susceptibility was examined with the help of the Controlled Tensile Weldability Test (CTW) developed by Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Berlin. The test is based on the fact that hot crack formation depends on a critical strain that emerges within a critical temperature range, the so called brittle temperature range (BTR). Using this test and defined investigation programme a centreline solidification crack was generated. By controlling the applied strain during the laser beam welding process, it was possible to determine the critical strain and strain rate that led to solidification cracking formation. The hot cracking susceptibility of the tested stainless steels was qualified and quantified. The results demonstrate that the crack length increases with increasing applied strain. Furthermore, the strain rate has a significant influence on the formation of the solidification crack.
Effect of cooling rate on microstructure and properties of microalloyed HSLA steel weld metals
(2015)
Two high strength Nb/Ti microalloyed S690QL steels were welded with identical filler material, varying welding parameters to obtain three cooling rates: slow, medium and fast cooling. As cooling rate increased, the predominantly acicular ferrite in Nb weld metal (WM) is substituted by bainite, with a consequence of obvious hardness increase, but in Ti WM, no great variation of acicular ferrite at all cooling rates contributed to little increment of hardness. The transition between bainite and acicular ferrite has been analysed from the point view of inclusions characteristics, chemical composition and cooling rate. Excellent Charpy toughness at 233 K was obtained with acicular ferrite as predominantly microstructure. Even with bainite weld of high hardness, the toughness was nearly enough to fulfill the minimal requirements. WM for Ti steel showed to be markedly less sensitive to the variations of cooling rate than that for Nb steel.
For the design of laminates the knowledge of the failure behaviour of plies under multiaxial stresses is a necessary precondition. The strength of plies under multiaxial stresses commonly is determined by standard off-axis tests using fixed clamps. By varying the off axis angle the ratio of shear to normal stresses can be prescribed. However, by preventing the rotation a complex stress field develops which strongly varies with the off axis angle as well. While these effects are not crucial when determining the elastic material parameters since the stress state in the center of the specimen is not far from the ideal uniaxial stress state they have a great influence on the failure behaviour.
Room temperature mechanical behavior of extruded Mg–Y–Zn alloys with varying fractions of LPSO phase was studied in tension and compression along the extrusion direction. The microstructure is characterized by elongated LPSO fibers along the extrusion direction within the magnesium matrix. Moreover, the magnesium matrix presents a bimodal grain structure with dynamically-recrystallized grains and deformed, elongated grains with the basal plane parallel to the extrusion direction. The beginning of plasticity depends on the volume fraction of deformed and DRX grains. Alloys with low volume fraction of LPSO phase(o10vol%),with a high volume fraction of deformed grains, show the typical behavior of extruded magnesium alloys where yield stress in tension is higher than in compression. This effect is, however, reversed as the volume fraction of the LPSO phase increases since DRX grains are majority.
Die Verleihung des Deutschen Zukunftspreises an ein Team zum Thema "Ultrakurzpulslaser für die industrielle Massenfertigung - Produzieren mit Lichtblitzen" im Jahr 2013 belegt die industrielle Relevanz des Ultrakurzpulslasereinsatzes in der Materialbearbeitung. Zunehmend werden weitere Anwendungen z.B. in der Mess- und Medizintechnik erschlossen. Femtosekunden-Laserpulse weisen prinzipbedingt ein breites Spektrum auf und besitzen bereits bei moderaten Pulsenergien extreme Pulsspitzenleistungen, womit über „konventionelle“ Laserquellen hinausgehende Herausforderungen an den Laserschutz entstehen. Die in entsprechenden Laserschutzbrillen verwendeten Laserschutzfilter müssen eine große spektrale Absorptionsbandbreite aufweisen und dürfen nicht aufschalten, d.h. keine induzierte Transmission zeigen. Im Vortrag soll dargestellt werden, dass Laserschutzfilter auf Glasbasis, die über ein breites Absorptionsspektrum verfügen, einen ausreichenden Schutz gegenüber fs-Laserstrahlung bieten, wohingegen Laserschutzfilter auf Polymerbasis eine induzierte spektrale Transmission bei steigender Energiedichte aufweisen können, was zu einem drastischen Verlust der Schutzfunktion führt.
Chitosan (CS)/iron oxide (Fe3O4) composites were prepared using a chemical precipitation method. The CS/Fe3O4 composite was characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and zeta-potential measurements. The Composite was used to remove methyl orange (MO) dye from an aqueous solution. The factors affecting the adsorption capacity, such as adsorption time, absorbent dosage and solution pH were investigated. The results suggested that the composite was an effective adsorbent for the removal of MO dye from its aqueous solution. Kinetics studies showed that the adsorption process was consistent with a pseudo-second-order model. The adsorbent efficiency was unaltered, even after five cycles of reuse, and the adsorbent could be recollected easily using a magnet. In addition, the composite exhibited a superior antibacterial efficacy against Escherichia coli; 82 % within 24 h, as measured by the colony forming units.
Microorganisms accumulate molar concentrations of compatible solutes like ectoine to prevent proteins from denaturation. Direct structural or spectroscopic information on the mechanism and about the hydration shell around ectoine are scarce. We combined surface plasmon resonance (SPR), confocal Raman spectroscopy, molecular dynamics simulations, and density functional theory (DFT) calculations to study the local hydration shell around ectoine and its influence on the binding of a gene-S-protein (G5P) to a single-stranded DNA (dT(25)). Due to the very high hygroscopicity of ectoine, it was possible to analyze the highly stable hydration shell by confocal Raman spectroscopy. Corresponding molecular dynamics simulation results revealed a significant change of the water dielectric constant in the presence of a high molar ectoine concentration as compared to pure water. The SPR data showed that the amount of protein bound to DNA decreases in the presence of ectoine, and hence, the protein-DNA dissociation constant increases in a concentration-dependent manner. Concomitantly, the Raman spectra in terms of the amide I region revealed large changes in the protein secondary structure. Our results indicate that ectoine strongly affects the molecular recognition between the protein and the oligonudeotide, which has important consequences for osmotic regulation mechanisms.
The stress vs. strain curve of materials is affected the rate of imposed straining. Among the methods for dynamic testing the technique known as 'split Hopkinson pressure bar' (SHPB) has evolved into the most widely used one to exert high-speed straining. The theory behind it comprises simple equations to compute stress and strain. The reliability of the strain analysis can be assessed by digital image correlation (DIC). The present results indicate that the visually observed strain is smaller than predicted by theory.
The integration of finite element method (FEM) into the least-squares adjustment presented in is further extended for a joint evaluation of an elastostatic model and displacement field measurement. For linear solids which obey the Hooke's law, the material parameters determination from measurements is being examined.
The use of supplementary cementing materials (SCMs) added to concrete mixtures can avoid the alkali-silica reaction. Such materials have a wide range of composition and therefore the inhibition mechanisms can be very differently.
The effectiveness of SCMs which provide silica and alumina into the alkaline solution cannot only be explained by reducing the OH--concentration of the pore solution. From dissolution experiments in potassium hydroxide solutions, an interaction was noted between the aggregate and five SCMs via the alkaline solution. Under specific conditions, no silica is released from the aggregate grains.
Mineralogical investigations (XRD, SEM+EDX) of the grain surfaces confirm that quartz is the main source of silica. In the presence of alumina providing SCMs, the quartz dissolution is strongly reduced or even sometimes stopped. On surfaces of grains a very thin layer can be observed which is probably responsible for reduction or stopping of the silica dissolution and therefore for the inhibition of ASR.
The knowledge of dissolution processes of aggregates and supplementary cementing materials (SCMs) in alkaline solutions can help to describe the expansion of concretes caused by alkali-silica reaction (ASR) and the effects to avoid ASR by using SCMs in more details. Therefore, dissolution experiments in alkaline solutions under different pH values and different temperatures were performed using aggregates in the original grain size and SCMs in different ratios. The concentrations of soluble silica and additionally alumina were determined by ICP-OES. The investigations showed that up to now the “best” conditions to explain the damage behavior of concrete structures are a pH value of 13 (e.g. 0.1 M KOH solution) and a temperature of 80 °C. The evaluation bases on the parameter “excess silica” which is calculated from the dissolved silica and alumina of the aggregates and the SCMs. It was demonstrated that SCMs reduce and sometimes stop the dissolution of aggregates. The efficiency of the SCMs depends on their amount and chemical composition.
In November 2007, OECD’s Working Party on Manufactured Nanomaterials (WPMN) launched the Sponsorship Programme for the Testing of Manufactured Nanomaterials (hereafter the Testing Programme). The objective was to conduct specific tests, relevant to human health and environmental safety endpoints, on a variety of manufactured nanomaterials (MN). The outcomes of the Testing Programme were intended to assess the applicability of the existing test guidelines1 to nanomaterials, as well as to provide useful information on any intrinsic properties of MNs, which are different from the same bulk material with greater external dimensions. Understanding the properties of NMs is crucial to choose appropriate strategies for hazard identification, risk assessment or risk management measures. The Testing Programme involved delegations from OECD member countries, some non-member economies and other stakeholders. The broad international representation, from a range of delegations enabled the programme to pool expertise and resources without which this programme would not have been possible.
Structuring of LTCC Substrates by a Combination of Pressure-Assisted Sintering and Hot Embossing
(2015)
A novel technology for the structuring of low temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC) surfaces is introduced. The commercial LTCC Ceramtape GC is shaped in a zero-shrinkage process by embossing a glass-like carbon mold into the softened LTCC during pressure-assisted sintering. Diverse raised and lowered structures including rings, grids, and characters were fabricated. It was found that de-airing of mold cavities is crucial for the molding of embossments. De-airing is possible through pore channels in the LTCC if embossing is performed at intermediate temperatures. The influence of LTCC viscosity on the mold filling behavior during the formation of raised structures is discussed. For accurate molding and proper densification of the LTCC, hot embossing with 0.41 MPa at 775 °C and subsequent heating under load to 850 °C is proposed. Embossing of precise, 40 µm deep circular cavities and 50 µm high raised bars and characters is demonstrated. Thereby, the high potential of the hot-embossing process for micro-patterning of LTCC is illustrated.
In order to estimating the amount and kind of emissions from polymeric sporting tracks a laboratory test was developed in BAM that combines artificial weathering and subsequent batch and column tests [1, 2, 3]. The goal consisted in nvestigating a possible change of emissions into soil and groundwater of a new sporting ground as a function of ageing and egradation of the system. At various stages of the weathering, the samples were removed and subjected to especially designed column extraction tests for the solid samples. Both these extracts and the accumulated rainwater run-off of the weathering device were subjected to analytical tests of their ingredients. The overall aim of the test consisted in developing ontrollable, reproducible, and standardisable conditions and methods of investigation that would allow an estimation of the emissions in the course of outdoor application of about five years.
Die meisten organischen Biozide gehören zu der Gruppe der schwerflüchtigen organischen Verbindungen (SVOC – semi volatile organic compounds). Zu den klassischen Bioziden zählen u.a. Lindan, Pentachlorphenol PCP) und Dichlordiphenyltrichlorethan (DDT) und zu den neueren u.a. Dichlofluanid, Tebuconazol und Permethrin. Biozide kamen in Museen vor allem in den 50er und 60er Jahren zum Schutz der Exponate zum Einsatz,1 wo sie hauptsächlich in Depoträumen zu finden sind, in welchen sie zum akuten und zum präventiven Schutz vor Schadorganismen eingesetzt wurden.2 Im Laufe der Zeit wurde jedoch festgestellt, dass sich der Einsatz von Bioziden negativ auf die menschliche Gesundheit auswirkt und auch zu Schäden an den behandelten Exponaten führen kann. 3 Verschiedene Möglichkeiten der Biozidanalytik und der Einfluss von Senkeneffekten auf die Analytik werden in diesem Beitrag vorgestellt.
High resolution in situ monitoring of the initial cement hydration influenced by organic admixtures
(2015)
Numerous admixtures are used in the building practice to customize the properties of the cement paste during application. The influences of admixtures on the course of cement hydration and formation of hydrate phases have to be considered. Polycarboxylate ether (PCE) based polymeric superplasticizers (SPs) are known to retard the setting of the cement paste. The extent of the retardation differs depending on the molecular structure of the SP. Additionally, the presence of a stabilizing agent (SA) in the cement paste has a retarding side effect on the setting. The initial cement hydration processes and the detailed mechanisms of the retardation influenced by PCEs, as well as their interactions with particular SAs, are insufficiently understood. Up to now, only the results of phenomenological studies were taken into account to describe this retardation process. A detailed structure analysis monitoring the change of the phase composition during the hydration was never applied. Both SP and SA affect the adsorption of the sulphate ions on the clinker particles, causing changes in the formation of ettringite during the initial hydration, and are therefore a crucial part of the setting process itself. Here, the initial hydration of cement influenced by the interaction of SP and SA was monitored in situ by synchrotron X-ray diffraction. The high time resolution of the measurements allowed a continuous detection of the hydrates formed. The hydration was followed from the starting point of water addition and for couple of hours afterwards. The hydration of the levitated cement pellets containing starch as SA was initialized by adding aqueous solutions of different commercial SPs. Changes in the ettringite formation were detected in comparison to the reference hydration of pure cement.
An electromagnetic weld pool support system for 20 mm thick duplex stainless steel AISI 2205 was investigated numerically and compared to experiments. In our former publications, it was shown how an AC magnetic field below the process zone directed perpendicular to the welding direction can induce vertically directed Lorentz forces. These can counteract the gravitational forces and allow for a suppression of material drop-out for austenitic stainless steels and aluminum alloys. In this investigation, we additionally adopted a steady-state complex magnetic permeability model for the consideration of the magnetic hysteresis behavior due to the ferritic characteristics of the material. The model was calibrated against the Jiles-Atherton model. The material model was also successfully tested against an experimental configuration before welding with a 30 mm diameter cylinder of austenitic stainless steel surrounded by duplex stainless steel. Thereby, the effects of the Curie temperature on the magnetic characteristics in the vicinity of the later welding zone were simulated. The welding process was modelled with a 3D turbulent steady-state model including heat transfer and fluid dynamics as well as the electromagnetic field equations. Main physical effects, the thermo-capillary (Marangoni) convection at the weld pool boundaries, the natural convection due to gravity as well as latent heat of solid–liquid phase transitions at the phase boundaries were accounted for in the model. The feedback of the electromagnetic forces on the weld pool was described in terms of the electromagneticinduced pressure. The FE software COMSOL Multiphysics 4.2 was used in this investigation. It is shown that the gravity drop-out associated with the welding of 20 mm thick duplex stainless steel plates due to the hydrostatic pressure can be prevented by the application of AC magnetic fields between around 70 mT and 90 mT. The corresponding oscillation frequencies were between 1 kHz and 10 kHz and the electromagnetic AC powers were between 1 kW and 2.3 kW. In the experiments, values of the electromagnetic AC power between 1.6 kW and 2.4 kW at oscillation frequencies between 1.2 kHz and 2.5 kHz were found to be optimal to avoid melt sagging or drop-out of melt in single pass fullpenetration laser beam welding of 15 mm and 20 mm thick AISI 2205.
Full penetration high power bead-on-plate laser beam welding tests of up to 20 mm thick 2205 duplex steel plates were performed in PA position. A contactless inductive electromagnetic (EM) weld pool support system was used to prevent gravity drop-out of the melt. Welding experiments with 15 mm thick plates were carried out using IPG fiber laser YLR 20000 and Yb:YAG thin disk laser TruDisk 16002. The laser power needed to achieve a full penetration was found to be 10.9 and 8.56kW for welding velocity of 1.0 and 0.5 m min(-1), respectively. Reference welds without weld pool support demonstrate excessive root sag. The optimal value of the alternating current (AC) power needed to completely compensate the sagging on the root side was found to be approximate to 1.6 kW for both values of the welding velocity. The same EM weld pool support system was used in welding tests with 20 mm thick plates. The laser beam power (TRUMPF Yb:YAG thin disk laser TruDisk 16002) needed to reach a full penetration for 0.5 m min(-1) was found to be 13.9 kW. Full penetration welding without EM weld pool support is not possible-the surface tension cannot stop the gravity drop-out of the melt. The AC power needed to completely compensate the gravity was found to be 2 kW. (C) 2016 Laser Institute of America
Elastic wave propagation of ultrasound in bituminous road surfaces - simulations and measurements
(2015)
Maintenance costs of road infrastructure are increasing steadily. The main cause of this is the nearly exponential increase of traffic during the last decades. Adverse environmental impacts on infrastructure get more and more important as well. Therefore, it is important to determine how limited financial resources can be directed with an optimum pay-out. Often a decision has to be made whether existing structures have to be rebuilt or repaired based on the condition of the structures. The present study takes first steps towards the usage of low-frequency ultrasound as a tool to evaluate the road condition. The overall aim is to derive a prediction model for future road conditions. In order to better understand and interpret recorded wave fields simulations of elastic wave propagation in layered and scattering road models have been performed. The study combined investigations in the laboratory with field measurements. In a series of extensive laboratory tests with different asphalt mixtures characteristic wave properties have been derived. Travel time (resp. velocity) as important material parameter has been investigated for different wave types, different centre frequencies and at various temperatures. An investigation of the directivity of wave radiation in the heterogeneous asphalt bodies led to an estimate of the related disturbing influences. Based on the laboratory results field measurements were performed on a real road and the records were processed to identify layers, propagation speeds and attenuation. The results were verified by a series of simulations.
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is characterized by high strength and high durability. This is achieved by an optimized grain size distribution, especially within fine grains, and addition of superplasticizer, which allow the reduction of the water/cement ratio in the cement paste and thereby the increase of the density of UHPC. Thermal treatment, i.e. curing at elevated temperature and pressure, contributes to a further increase of compressive strength. The aim of the presented study was to analyze the effect of thermal treatment at 90 ◦C and atmospheric pressure on UHPC samples. Varying factors were the age of the samples when heat treatment started (initial storage time), the duration of heat treatment and the type of heat treatment. It was applied in three ways: 1. treated without any protection, 2. sealed in plastic foil and 3. treated in hot water. Afterwards the samples were analyzed with respect to their mechanical properties and their phase composition. Furthermore, the weight (water absorption) of the samples was observed over 28 days and was correlated with the strength test results. The development of strength depends on the combination of initial storage time and the duration of heat treatment and is also influenced by the type of thermal treatment. The highest compressive strengths have been observed by implementing the hot water treatment. Thereby the weight of the samples increase due to additional absorbed water. This enables an increased hydration of cement clinker inducing a higher strength.
SASfit: a tool for small-angle scattering data analysis using a library of analytical expressions
(2015)
SASfit is one of the mature programs for small-angle scattering data analysis and has been available for many years. This article describes the basic data processing and analysis workflow along with recent developments in the SASfit program package (version 0.94.6). They include (i) advanced algorithms for reduction of oversampled data sets, (ii) improved confidence assessment in the optimized model parameters and (iii) a flexible plug-in system for custom user-provided models. A scattering function of a mass fractal model of branched polymers in solution is provided as an example for implementing a plug-in. The new SASfit release is available for major platforms such as Windows, Linux and MacOS. To facilitate usage, it includes comprehensive indexed documentation as well as a web-based wiki for peer collaboration and online videos demonstrating basic usage. The use of SASfit is illustrated by interpretation of the small-angle X-ray scattering curves of monomodal gold nanoparticles (NIST reference material 8011) and bimodal silica nanoparticles (EU reference material ERM-FD-102).
Melt flow and dripping of the pyrolysing polymer melt can be both a benefit and a detriment during a fire. In several small-scale fire tests addressing the ignition of a defined specimen with a small ignition source, well-adjusted melt flow and dripping are usually beneficial to pass the test. The presence of flame retardants often changes the melt viscosity crucially. The influence of certain flame retardants on the dripping behaviour of four commercial polymers, poly(butylene terephthalate) (PBT), polypropylene (PP), polypropylene modified with ethylene-propylene rubber (PP-EP) and polyamide 6 (PA 6), is analysed based on an experimental monitoring of the mass loss due to melt dripping, drop size and drop temperature as a function of the furnace temperature applied to a rod-shaped specimen. Investigating the thermal transition (DSC), thermal and thermo-oxidative decomposition, as well as the viscosity of the polymer and collected drops completes the investigation. Different mechanisms of the flame retardants are associated with their influence on the dripping behaviour in the UL 94 test. Reduction in decomposition temperature and changed viscosity play a major role. A flow limit in flame-retarded PBT, enhanced decomposition of flame-retarded PP and PP-EP and the promotion of dripping in PA 6 are the salient features discussed.
Zur Wirkungsweise und zum Einfluss unterschiedlicher Parameter beim Kathodischen Korrosionsschutz von Stahl in Beton wurden in der Vergangenheit bereits zahlreiche Untersuchungen durchgeführt. Über die Dauerhaftigkeit leitfähiger Beschichtung auf Karbonbasis als Fremdstromanode beim KKS von Stahlbeton liegen bislang keine umfassenden wissenschaftlichen Untersuchungen vor. Die in den einzelnen Arbeitspaketen (AP) erzielten Ergebnisse und gewonnenen Erkenntnisse tragen zum Verständnis über die Elektrodenreaktion der einzelnen Systeme bei. Die Frage der Dauerhaftigkeit konnte im Rahmen dieses Forschungsvorhabens nicht zur Gänze geklärt werden. Die Ergebnisse aus dem AP 1a liefern einen wesentlichen Beitrag zur Beantwortung der offenen Fragestellung hinsichtlich der vorherrschenden Elektrodenreaktion. In Verbindung mit dem Pourbaixdiagramm für Kohlenstoff lässt sich für die Beschichtungssysteme CBCC 1 und CBCC 2, nach 500 h andauernder Polarisation mit 10 mA/m² in ges. Calziumhydroxidlösung, die vorherrschende Elektrodenreaktion als Sauerstoffelektrode verifizieren. Im AP 1b wurde festgestellt, dass die an einem Praxisobjekt applizierten Systeme CBCC 1 und CBCC 2 in der Lage sind, die Schutzkriterien zu erfüllen. Die an diesem Objekt erforderlichen Schutzspannungen liegen jeweils zwischen 1 und 2 V. Die Anodenstromdichten betragen ca. 2,5 mA/m². Aufgrund der hohen Depolarisationsraten kann das Niveau der anliegenden Anodenstromdichten in Zukunft noch nach unten angepasst werden. Die Ergebnisse aus dem AP 1b und 1a sind erst zeitlich nach Festlegung der Prüfparameter für das AP 2a erzielt worden. Mit den ursprünglich veranschlagten Stromdichten von max. 40 mA/m² traten langfristig nachfolgende Problemstellungen auf: Bei der Stromeinleitung mittels Primärelektrode und Stromdichten größer gleich 20 mA/m² wurde festgestellt, dass die Versuche bei allen Systemen eine deutliche Entkopplung zwischen Primärelektrode und Beschichtung verursacht haben. Dies ist auf die hohen lokalen Stromdichten am Übergang Primärelektrode/leitfähige Beschichtung zurückzuführen. Eine Untersuchung der erforderlichen Kontaktfläche der Primärelektrode bezogen auf die effektive Stromdichte konnte nicht erfolgen. Weiterhin wurden die Haftzugwerte über die Dauer der Polarisation untersucht und mit unpolarisierten Proben verglichen. Eine Reduktion des Verbundes infolge Polarisation mit den angesetzten Stromdichten konnte verzeichnet werden. Es wurde jedoch auch festgestellt, dass mit zunehmenden Probenalter auch reduzierte Haftzugwerte an den geschliffenen und unpolarisierten Oberflächen der Referenzprobekörper ermittelt wurden. Die Grundlagen für die Simulation konnten in AP 3 anhand der gewonnen Ergebnisse erstellt werden und Feldverteilungen unter Berücksichtigung verschiedener Parameter berechnet werden. Eine auf den gewonnenen Erkenntnisse basierende Modellentwicklung für die Dauerhaftigkeitsprognose unter variierenden Randbedingungen, wie sie für AP 4 vorgesehen
war, konnte auf Basis der erzielten Ergebnisse nicht erfolgen. Dass die Beschichtungssysteme unter praxisüblichen Randbedingungen einsetzbar sind und bei dem Vergleich der Schutzspannung mit klassischen Systemaufbauten gleiche Schutzstromdichten erzielt werden, zeigt das AP 1b deutlich. Die zukünftigen Ergebnisse aus der Praxisanwendung (AP 1b) werden über die Projektlaufzeit hinaus ausgewertet und publiziert. Das Ziel des Vorhabens wurde teilweise erreicht.
From the last decades the earth construction has a growing interest due to the high sustainability (low C02 emissions), thermal and acoustic performance, fire resistance and cost of the raw material (soil). In fact, earth construction can constitute a feasible solution for a more sustainable construction industry in developed countries. Nowadays the research areas on earthen construction focus from one side on the improvement of the materials for new buildings, on the other side on the Conservation of existing architectural heritage.
Historical earthen buildings are often damaged by static or dynamic loads in form of extensive cracking. All too often these cracks are insufficiently or inappropriately repaired, if at all, because of lack of knowledge and/or technology. In particular, the behaviour of crack repair by grouting poses a challenge in earthen materials and demands specific requirements for the grouting mortar, such as low water content, good water retention, low shrinkage, etc. Cracks in earthen construction can be repaired by grouting to re-establish structural continuity, and can also be used to consolidate voids and gaps, or as a complement to other strengthening techniques such as the introduction of tie-rods.
In the framework of earthen materials for new constructions, the major drawback is that traditional earthen materials are typically considered as non-standard. The great variability and heterogeneity of the properties of the available soils, the lack of quality control in the manufacturing of the earthen materials and in the construction process can be pointed out as the main reasons behind this Situation. Furthermore, only few countries issued Standards and recommendations supporting earth construction, discouraging the design of earth construction by the technical community in countries where these documents are absent.
Concrete of today has only little in common with the traditional concrete used a few decades ago. It has become a high performance material, which can be adjusted for high performance applications and according to ultimate user specifications. The reason for the rapid evolvement was the increasing awareness about how the rheology of concrete can be improved without negatively affecting the mechanical properties of concrete by chemical admixtures.
Welcome to the first symposium on Knowledge Exchange for Young Scientists (KEYS) in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 9th – 11th June 2015. This symposium is part of a three phase series organised by BAM, and funded by VolkswagenStiftung. Each symposium will focus on relevant themes in the construction sector and will include adequate training as well as offer an opportunity to participate in informal discussions between key players and young scientists, which will facilitate the fundamentals of knowledge transfer.
Our world of cement and concrete faces tremendous challenges for the future. Without doubt cement-based materials will remain the most widely used construction materials in the world. Concrete can be made available everywhere in the world, and it is more sustainable than other materials. Nevertheless, in order to become even more sustainable, we need to find solutions to reduce CO2 generation for the cement production, to quickly solve problems of housing and infrastructures, and to cope with ever increasing customer needs in terms of performances.
There is no global optimum solution for concrete. Best concrete practices always has to be found locally and regionally based on raw materials, supply chains, and construction needs, but it can be inspired by other regions. In order to tackle the future challenges and build more innovative with concrete, we need to enhance interdisciplinary engineering skills and create networks between future decision makers.
Therefore, the KEYS symposia series offers a platform whereby young African scientists can get together with peers from Germany as well as with experienced academic engineers, industry specialists and scientists from across the globe for better implementation of research analysis in their respective fields of study. This primarily provides the opportunity to obtain further knowledge in the demand for the home-base innovation and growth of the education sector. It will also provide an opportunity to network with their peers and gain relevant and objective knowledge.
The theme for this first symposium is sub-Saharan African standards for cement and concrete research – raw materials, quality control and maintenance of cementitious products. The symposium is divided into 8 sections and includes presentations from 9 international keynote speakers and 22 young scientists, who were selected out of a high number of applicants based on the excellence of their scientific writing.
We would like to thank all participants for their valuable contribution to the symposium. We are blessed to receive tremendous input from the distinguished keynote speakers and we thank them for their attendance. Last but not least, we would like to acknowledge the funding body, VolkwagenStiftung, for their support. We hope you enjoy the symposium and find your engagement valuable with the entire team in sustaining your professional development in the global world of cement and concrete.
A new method for sampling wear particles directly from the lubricant reservoir has been developed and applied successfully for analyzing wear particles by high-resolution scanning electron microscopy in transmission mode having coupled energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The lubricated tribological testing was carried out with fully formulated as well as with non-formulated synthetic base oil. It was possible to analyze individual particles with dimensions as small as about 5–30 nm which are likely the 'primary' wear particles. A majority of the particles, however, are agglomerated and, thus, lead to the formation of larger agglomerates of up to a few micrometers. Chemical analysis led to the conclusion that most of the observed particles generated in formulated oil, especially the larger ones, are composed of the additives of the lubricant oil. In non-formulated base oil, the primary particles are of similar dimensions but contain only iron, chromium and oxygen, but most likely stem from the mating materials. This finding points to the fact that the main wear mechanism under lubricated conditions with fully formulated oil is more like a continuous shearing process rather than a catastrophic failure with the generation of larger primary particles. When the oil is non-formulated, however, several wear mechanisms act simultaneously and the wear rate is increased significantly. Generated larger primary particles are milled down to the nanoscale. When the oil is fully formulated, wear mainly takes places at the additive layer or tribofilm; thus, the steel surface is protected.
A user-friendly open-source Monte Carlo regression package (McSAS) is presented, which structures the analysis of small-angle scattering (SAS) using uncorrelated shape-similar particles (or scattering contributions). The underdetermined problem is solvable, provided that sufficient external information is available. Based on this, the user picks a scatterer contribution model (or 'shape') from a comprehensive library and defines variation intervals of its model parameters. A multitude of scattering contribution models are included, including prolate and oblate nanoparticles, core-shell objects, several polymer models, and a model for densely packed spheres. Most importantly, the form-free Monte Carlo nature of McSAS means it is not necessary to provide further restrictions on the mathematical form of the parameter distribution; without prior knowledge, McSAS is able to extract complex multimodal or odd-shaped parameter distributions from SAS data. When provided with data on an absolute scale with reasonable uncertainty estimates, the software outputs model parameter distributions in absolute volume fraction, and provides the modes of the distribution (e.g. mean, variance etc.). In addition to facilitating the evaluation of (series of) SAS curves, McSAS also helps in assessing the significance of the results through the addition of uncertainty estimates to the result. The McSAS software can be integrated as part of an automated reduction and analysis procedure in laboratory instruments or at synchrotron beamlines.
Lightweight granules are mineral, spherical and porous particles with bulk density less than 2000 kg m . New types of lightweight granules are made from masonry -3 rubble as an alternative to the commonly used expanded clay and shale. They are produced in a multistage manufacturing process by thermal or hydrothermal treatment. Studies of the microstructure of the new lightweight granules are very important to optimise the engineering properties with regard to different applications from lightweight concrete to planting substrates and wastewater treatment. Here, the results of porosity and pore structure measurements are presented. Characteristic samples with different bulk densities of both thermally and hydrothermally hardened granules have been analysed by means of various methods.
The plastic deformation results in irreversible microstructure changes in the steel, which can be considered as the initial stage of the fracture process. However, detecting, monitoring and evaluating, damage states and small defects non-destructively in advance still proves challenging. Dubov reported the phenomenon of the spontaneous emergence of weak magnetic fields in ferritic structural steel and pipelines, which originate due to heterogeneous mechanical and / or thermal stresses. This observation is not associated with induced phase transformations by deformation and appears to be a promising tool for the prior characterization of damage in ferromagnetic steels. To provide a better understanding of the physical bases of the process, the magnetic microstructure of such materials and a change of magnetic domains after undergoing plastic deformation were studied. A colloidal solution with paramagnetic particles in the nanometer range (ferrofluid), which allowed, through the Bitter technique, not only to observe a change in size of the magnetic domains of the material, but also changes in their morphology. Ferritic steels with their concentrations of carbon in its composition (0.12%; 0.17% and 0.45%) were studied in this work.
Die bisherigen Forschungsergebnisse ermöglichen, ungeachtet der Vielzahl existenter experimenteller und numerischer Ergebnisse, keine allgemeingültige Heißrisscharakterisierung und speziell Erstarrungsrisscharakterisierung. Ursächlich hierfür ist vor allem die Vielzahl von Einflussgrößen und damit die komplexe Interaktion dieser Mechanismen, die eine generelle Beschreibung des Heißrissphänomens erschwert. Die Heißrissentstehung und somit die Erstarrungsrissinitiierung werden durch die Interaktion von Schweißprozess, Metallurgie und Design beschrieben. Die Literaturrecherche zeigt, dass bei der Erstarrungsrisscharakterisierung der konstruktive Aspekt vielfach unterschätzt wird. Hierbei werden u. a. die bauteil- und fertigungsspezifischen Vorbeanspruchungen durch diverse Umformprozesse hinsichtlich der Ausführung der Schweißnaht zu selten berücksichtigt. Ferner wird der Designeinfluss bei der Heißrissentstehung durch die eingeschränkte Übertragbarkeit verschiedener Beanspruchungen auf den Labormaßstab und somit auf die jeweiligen Heißrisstests limitiert. Daraus resultiert die Komplexität bei dem Transfer der Ergebnisse zwischen Laborproben und Bauteilen sowie der grundsätzlichen Heißrisscharakterisierung.
Diese Arbeit hatte das Ziel, unterschiedliche bei Bauteilschweißungen auftretende Bean-spruchungen im Labor abzubilden sowie die experimentelle Quantifizierung erstarrungs-risskritischer Größen. Diesbezüglich wurden fremdbeanspruchte Heißrisstests unter An-wendung berührungsloser Messtechniken durchgeführt, um so den Schweißprozess hin-sichtlich verschiedener designspezifischer Einflussgrößen auf die Erstarrungsrissinitiierung bei hochlegierten Stählen zu analysieren. Die Untersuchungen erfolgten an austenitischen (1.4828) und ferritischen (1.4509) Werkstoffen mit unterschiedlichen mechanischen und technologischen Eigenschaften. Zur Berücksichtigung der praxisrelevanten Beanspruchungen wurden die Proben mit verschiedenen Zug- und Biegebeanspruchungen teils vor und während des WIG-Schweißprozesses beaufschlagt. Im Hinblick auf den jeweiligen Beanspruchungsfall erfolgten lokale und schweißnahtnahe Analysen erstarrungsrisskritischer Verschiebungen und Verschiebungsraten mit exakter Zeit- und Ortsauflösung. Zusätzlich wurden Fallanalysen an Bauteilen in industriellen Fertigungsprozessen durchgeführt, um besonders den gegenseitigen Einfluss von Design und Schweißprozess zu ermit-teln und zusätzlich die Ergebnisübertragbarkeit von Laborproben und Bauteilen aus dem Fertigungsprozess zu prüfen.
Die durchgeführten Untersuchungen ergeben wesentliche Erkenntnisse zur Vermeidung von Bauteilschäden durch Erstarrungsrisse. Es wurde der designspezifische Einfluss auf das Erstarrungsverhalten der Schweißnaht nachgewiesen und als Erstarrungsrisskriterium dargestellt. Die Arbeit beschreibt für diverse Beanspruchungen die Mechanismen bei der Erstarrungsrissinitiierung. Ferner zeigen die Ergebnisse wesentliche erstarrungsrissspezifische Unterschiede zwischen Vorbeanspruchungen und Beanspruchungen während des Schweißprozesses. Zudem erfolgte die Darstellung der Interaktion von Design und Schweißprozess, werkstoffspezifisch anhand in-situ detektierter Verschiebungswerte. Es wurde gezeigt, dass die ermittelten Messdaten von Bedeutung für weiterführende numerische Simulationen sind, insbesondere zur Validierung numerischer Modelle, die erstarrungsrisskritische Bauteildeformationen abbilden.
Wirtschaftliche und ökologische Aspekte führten in den letzten Jahren zu deutlich gesteigerten Anforderungen an die Effizienz und die Flexibilität petrochemischer Anlagen. Die heutzutage geforderten Prozesstemperaturen und -drücke lassen sich nur durch den Einsatz neuer warmfester Stahlgüten erreichen. Der mit Vanadium modifizierte Stahl 13CrMoV9-10 weist eine bessere Kriech und Druckwasserstoffbeständigkeit auf und wird seit Mitte der 90er Jahre im petrochemischen Reaktorbau eingesetzt. Aufgrund der niedrigen Zähigkeit und hohen Festigkeit des Schweißgutes im geschweißten, nicht spannungsarm geglühten Zustand sowie einer erhöhten Sensitivität gegenüber Spannungsrelaxationsrissen bedarf dieser Stahl allerdings einer äußerst sorgfältigen schweißtechnischen Verarbeitung. Bisherige Untersuchungen zur Rissentstehung in warmfesten Stählen konzentrierten sich vorrangig auf thermische und metallurgische Einflussfaktoren, bieten jedoch nur wenige Erkenntnisse zum Einfluss des Schweißprozesses auf die Rissbildung beim Spannungsarmglühen unter Berücksichtigung realitätsnaher Fertigungsbedingungen.
Im ersten Teil wurde zunächst der Einfluss der Wärmeführung auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften anhand von frei schrumpfenden Laborproben untersucht. Während sich die Wärmeführung wesentlich auf die Schweißnahtstruktur auswirkte, war ein signifikanter Effekt auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften nicht nachweisbar. Auch traten infolge der Wärmenachbehandlung der frei schrumpfend geschweißten Proben keine Spannungsrelaxationsrisse auf.
Der zweite Teil umfasste die realitätsnahe Abbildung der Fertigungsbedingungen im petrochemischen Reaktorbau. Zu diesem Zweck wurden die konstruktiven Randbedingungen während des Vorwärmens, Schweißens, des Wasserstoffarmglühens und der abschließenden Wärmenachbehandlung realitätsnah in einer speziellen 3-D-Prüfanlage zur Simulation von Bauteilschweißungen abgebildet. Unter konstruktiver Schrumpfbehinderung gelang der Nachweis der unterschiedlichen Wirkung von Vorwärm- / Zwischenlagentemperatur und Streckenenergie auf die resultierenden Kräfte, Momente und Spannungen. Die Gesamtreaktionsspannung nach dem Schweißen wurde innerhalb des untersuchten Parameterfeldes maßgeblich durch die Streckenenergie beeinflusst.
Ein möglichst geringer Gesamtwärmeeintrag hat die niedrigste Bauteilbeanspruchung zur Folge. Während der Wärmenachbehandlung kam es in allen Versuchen zu Spannungsrelaxationsrissen.
Deren kumulierte Länge korrelierte mit den ermittelten schweißbedingten Reaktionsspannungen. Die Detektion der Risse während der Wärmenachbehandlung im Bauteilversuch erfolgte erstmalig in-situ mittels Schallemissionsanalyse. Die Rissinitiierung fand nachweislich im Temperaturbereich von 300 °C bis 500 °C statt. Die Reaktionsspannungen nach der Wärmenachbehandlung lagen unabhängig von der Ausgangsbelastung auf einem vergleichbaren Niveau. Die Zähigkeit der Schweißverbindung nahm klar gegenüber den frei schrumpfend geschweißten Proben ab.
Mittels REM- und TEM-Analysen an vergleichbaren belasteten und unbelasteten Proben wurde eine beschleunigte Alterung, durch das frühzeitige Ausscheiden von Sonderkarbiden während der Wärmenachbehandlung unter definierter Einspannung (d. h. unter Belastung), nachgewiesen. Die verstärkte Korngrenzensegregation korrelierte mit der signifikanten Abnahme der Kerbschlagarbeit der unter Einspannung geschweißten Proben.
Natürliche Gesteinsformationen und von Menschen aus Gesteinsmaterial erschaffene Gebäude oder Monumente werden bei genügend langer Inkubation von zahlreichen Mikroorganismen besiedelt, welche komplexe Ökosysteme bilden. Dies führt oft zu Verfärbungen der Gesteinsoberflächen durch Pigmente der Mikroorganismen. Zudem können die Organismen das Gestein angreifen und zusammen mit abiotischen Faktoren eine Auflösung herbeiführen, was von essenzieller Bedeutung für die Bildung von Böden und gleichzeitig kritisch für die Erhaltung von Kulturgütern ist. Ein profundes Verständnis der Primärbesiedlung auf Gesteinen ist eine Voraussetzung, um Prozesse der Sukzession und der Gesteinsverwitterung besser nachvollziehen und modellieren zu können. Mischkulturen, die aus dem phototrophen Cyanobakterium Nostoc punctiforme ATCC 29133 und dem mikrokolonialen Ascomycet Knufia petricola CBS 726.95 bestanden, wurden als Modell für die ersten Schritte der Gesteinsbesiedlung in Form von Biofilmen und hinsichtlich des biologischen Einflusses auf die Gesteinsverwitterung hin getestet. Dazu wurden unterschiedliche Gesteine als Substrate angeboten, unter verschiedenen Kultivierungs- und Witterungsbedingungen mit den Mischkulturen inkubiert und die sich bildenden Biofilme bzgl. ihrer Morphologie und Abundanz hin analysiert. Es zeigte sich, dass das Wachstum der Biofilme deutlich von den verwendeten Gesteinen und Witterungsbedingungen abhing und die Anordnung und Morphologie der Zellen und der aus diesen ausgeschiedenen polymeren Substanzen innerhalb der Biofilme sich je nach eingesetztem Gesteinssubstrat deutlich unterschieden. Der biologische Einfluss auf die Verwitterung von Gestein wurde in einem Durchfluss-System an einem Granit und in Batch-Kulturen an Calcit, Forsterit und Olivin getestet, indem nach Inkubation für 45-180 d in An- und Abwesenheit der Mikroorganismen die in der Flüssigphase angereicherten Elemente und die chemischen Veränderungen in der Mineralphase vergleichend gemessen wurden. Dabei zeigte sich, dass der Biofilm die Auflösung von Calcium, Natrium, Magnesium und Mangan aus Granit sowie von Magnesium aus Forsterit und Olivin verstärkte. Einzelkulturen von K. petricola und Mischkulturen führten zu verstärkter Magnesiumauflösung, Einzelkulturen von N. punctiforme zeigten die gleichen Effekte wie abiotische Kontrollen. Beide Mikroorganismen wuchsen deutlich besser in Mischkulturen, sodass ein indirekter biotischer Effekt auf die Mineralauflösung von N. punctiforme durch die Verstärkung des Wachstums von K. petricola innerhalb einer mutualistischen Gemeinschaft als plausibel erscheint. Der Mechanismus der biotisch induziert verstärkten Gesteinsverwitterung konnte aufgrund der hier vorliegenden Ergebnisse nicht eruiert werden. Die verwendeten Mischkulturen aus K. petricola und N. punctiforme konnten als nützliches Modell zur Untersuchung von Gesteinsbewuchs und –verwitterung etabliert werden.
Niedrigsinternde Glas-Keramik-Komposite (LTCC, low temperature co-fired ceramics) werden erfolgreich als kompakte, mehrlagige Schaltungsträger in der Automobilindustrie und Hochfrequenztechnik eingesetzt. Dazu werden sie mit Verfahren der Folien- und Multilayertechnik verarbeitet und gemeinsam mit aufgedruckten Metallisierungen bei Temperaturen bis 900 °C co-gesintert. Besonders bei hohen Anforderungen an die Reproduzierbarkeit der Sinterschwindung hat sich das Sintern mit axialer Druckunterstützung etabliert, wodurch unter anderem die Schwindung in der Ebene der Einzelfolien unterdrückt werden kann. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, die LTCC-Drucksintertechnologie unter zwei Gesichtspunkten weiterzuentwickeln:
• Erarbeitung eines einfachen und praktikablen Verfahrens zur Modellierung und Simulation des Verfahrens,
• prozessintegrierte Erzeugung maßgeschneiderter, speziell dünnfilmfähiger Oberflächenstrukturen.
Für die Simulation der Sinterung wurde das Modell der Mastersinterkurve ausgewählt. Die Eignung des Modells zur Beschreibung von LTCC-Werkstoffen wird zunächst ohne Druckunterstützung nachgewiesen. Dabei werden die Mastersinterkurven von frei gesinterten Pulverpresslingen und Folienlaminaten, deren Schwindung in der Ebene unterdrückt ist, quantitativ gegenübergestellt. Außerdem wird eine Methode vorgeschlagen und experimentell bestätigt, mit der die Schwindungsfehlpassung von Werkstoffkombinationen bei druckloser Co-Sinterung von berechnet werden kann. Die Modellierung der druckunterstützten Sinterung basiert auf thermomechanischen Analysen eines verbreitet angewendeten, kommerziellen LTCC-Werkstoffs (DuPont GreenTape DP951) im Druckbereich von 2 kPa bis 500 kPa. Die Auswertung der Messwerte und Entwicklung der Mastersinterkurven erfolgt unter Berücksichtigung der Kriechverformung des Werkstoffs unter Druck und wird durch grundlegende Untersuchungen zur für dieses Modell obligatorischen Bestimmung der Aktivierungsenergie ergänzt. Mit einer konstanten Aktivierungsenergie von 400 kJ/mol werden Mastersinterkurven für verschiedene Drücke aufgestellt und mit Anpassungsfunktionen modelliert. Die mit Hilfe der Anpassungsfunktionen simulierten Sinterkurven stimmen gut mit den Messungen überein. Das Modell wird als geeignet und praktikabel bewertet.
Die prozessintegrierte Erzeugung maßgeschneiderter Oberflächenstrukturen erfolgt über die im Drucksinterprozess eingesetzten Brennhilfsmittel. Zur Einstellung gewünschter Rautiefen auf den gesinterten Oberflächen werden Opferfolien aus Al2O3 mit unterschiedlichen Partikelgrößenverteilungen und eine Opferfolie aus hexagonalem BN vorgestellt, die über Rückstandsschichten auf der LTCC-Oberfläche die Oberflächenstruktur bestimmen. Der Zusammenhang von Opferfolieneigenschaften und Oberflächencharakteristika wird an verschiedenen LTCC-Werkstoffen beschrieben. Die Rauheit einer druckgesinterten LTCC-Oberfläche kann über die Partikelgröße der Opferfolien gezielt verändert werden. Zur Herstellung dünnfilmkompatibler, rückstandsfreier Oberflächen im Drucksinterprozess wird glasartiger Kohlenstoff als Brennhilfsmittel eingeführt. Damit wird eine Regelung des Sauerstoffpartialdrucks während des Brandes erforderlich. Eine vollständige thermische Entbinderung der Grünfolien ist aufgrund von Kohlenstoffrückständen auf den Partikeloberflächen erst oberhalb 500 °C möglich. Einflüsse der Prozessparameter Druck und Haltezeit auf die resultierende Oberflächenstruktur werden aufgeklärt und optimale Prozessfenster für die untersuchten Werkstoffe angegeben. Mit dem entwickelten Verfahren können zum ersten Mal verschiedene LTCC-Substrate mit dünnfilmfähigen Oberflächen nacharbeitsfrei durch Drucksintern hergestellt werden.
Die Ergebnisse zur Modellierung und Simulation leisten einen wertvollen Beitrag zur Einsparung von Energie, Zeit und Kosten bei der Gestaltung von Drucksinterprozessen. Die erarbeiteten Brennhilfsmittelkonzepte können ressourcenaufwändige Nacharbeit teilweise ersetzen und eröffnen durch die Dünnfilmeignung der Oberflächen neue Anwendungsgebiete der Drucksintertechnologie in der Sensor und Mikrosystemtechnik.
In der Offshore-Industrie werden seit langer Zeit austenitisch-ferritische Duplexstähle eingesetzt, da sie im Vergleich zu herkömmlichen austenitischen hochlegierten Stählen bessere Festigkeitseigenschaften aufweisen und gegenüber rein ferritischen hochlegierten Stählen eine bessere Verformbarkeit bei gleichzeitig verbesserter Korrosionsbeständigkeit, auch in aggressiver Umgebung, bieten. Dennoch zeigt das Schrifttum, dass es trotz dieser guten Eigenschaften zum Versagen von Bauteilen kommen kann, bei dem Wasserstoff für die Schadensursache eine entscheidende Rolle spielt.
Zur Klärung der Schädigungsmechanismen unter Einfluss von Wasserstoff kann die numerische Simulation einen entscheidenden Beitrag leisten, da sich experimentelle Ergebnisse besser deuten und zwischen Labortests bis hin zu Bauteilversuchen übertragen lassen. Bisher wurden jedoch meistens makroskopische numerische Betrachtungen zur wasserstoffunterstützten Werkstoffschädigung in Duplexstählen durchgeführt. Die Duplexstähle bestehen jedoch nahezu aus gleichen Teilen an austenitischer und ferritischer Phase, welche unterschiedliche mechanische Eigenschaften als auch Transporteigenschaften für Wasserstoff aufweisen. Zugleich bedingt dies eine unterschiedliche Empfindlichkeit für eine wasserstoffunterstützte Werkstoffschädigung. Daher bestand die Aufgabe dieser Arbeit in der Erstellung eines numerischen Mesomodells eines realen Duplexgefüges, mit dem die Abbildung des Wasserstofftransportverhaltens, der mechanischen Spannungen und Dehnungen sowie der Rissinitiierung und des Rissfortschrittes in den einzelnen Phasen möglich ist. Zudem werden moderne Röntgenbeugungsexperimente genutzt, um den Einfluss von Wasserstoff auf die phasenspezifischen mechanischen Eigenschaften zu bestimmen.
Für den Transport von Wasserstoff konnte eine deutliche Abhängigkeit von der Orientierung der austenitischen und ferritischen Phase im Gefüge gezeigt werden, wobei der Wasserstofftransport vornehmlich über die ferritische Phase erfolgt und der Wasserstoff im Austenit stärker getrappt wird. Die numerische Analyse der mechanischen Spannungen und Dehnungen in den Phasen des Duplexstahls zeigte, dass bei einer makroskopisch elastischen Beanspruchung des Duplexgefüges bereits lokal in den Phasen plastische Verformungen auftreten können. Damit verbunden ist ein erhöhtes Risiko für eine wasserstoffunterstützte Werkstoffschädigung bereits im makroskopisch elastischen Bereich, wenn ausreichend hohe Wasserstoffkonzentrationen im Duplexgefüge vorliegen. Die Ergebnisse der numerischen Simulation entsprechen den experimentellen Beobachtungen zum Wasserstofftransport und den lokalen Beanspruchungen in realen Duplexgefügen. Das Modell erlaubt somit die Identifikation risskritischer Bereiche und kritischer Kombinationen von Wasserstoffkonzentration und lokaler Beanspruchung im Duplexgefüge. Die Ergebnisse der simulierten wasserstoffunterstützten Werkstofftrennung stimmen mit experimentellen Beobachtungen zugehöriger Bruchtopographien überein.
Insgesamt wird erstmalig eine numerische Simulation der wasserstoffunterstützten Werkstoffschädigung im Duplexstahl, unter Berücksichtigung der lokalen Beanspruchung und Wasserstoffverteilung in den spezifischen Phasen (Austenit / δ-Ferrit), durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse korrelieren mit experimentellen Beobachtungen und erlauben somit ein besseres Verständnis für die Mechanismen der wasserstoffunterstützten Werkstoffschädigung in Duplexstählen. Die Simulationen unterstützen die Deutung experimenteller Ergebnisse und ermöglichen die Übertragbarkeit auf reale Bauteile.