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Paper des Monats
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For the hydrogen-based energy economy of tomorrow, the construction of the necessary infrastructure will play a central role. Most materials used to date, such as welded steels, can be prone to hydrogen embrittlement under certain conditions. This includes the classic delayed cold cracking during welding as well as degradation phenomena during service of components in hydrogen-containing environment. For the evaluation of any hydrogen effect, for example, on the mechanical properties of a welded metallic material, the hydrogen content must be precisely determined. In the case of weld seams, the carrier gas hot extraction (CGHE) according to ISO 3690 is meanwhile state-of-the-art. CGHE is based on accelerated hydrogen degassing due to the thermal activation of hydrogen at elevated temperatures. In addition to the quantification of hydrogen, thermal desorption analysis (TDA) with varying heating rates can be used to determine and evaluate the hydrogen trapping at microstructural defects in the material. For both techniques, experimental and metrological influences must be considered, which have a major effect on the result. For example, ISO 3690 suggests different sample geometries and minimum extraction times for CGHE. This study summarizes the results and experiences of numerous investigations at the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM) with different sample temperatures and geometries (ISO 3690 type B and cylindrical TDA samples) regarding the influence of the sample surface (polished/welded), measurement accuracy depending on the sample volume and the insufficient monitoring of the effect of PI control on the extraction temperature. A deviating extraction temperature from the target temperature can significantly falsify the measurement results. Based on the results, methods are shown which allow the desired extraction temperature to be reached quickly without physically interfering with the measuring equipment. This serves to significantly improve the reliability of the hydrogen measurement through increased signal stability and accelerated hydrogen desorption. In general, an independent temperature measurement with dummy samples is recommended for the heating procedure of choice to exclude possible undesired temperature influences before the measurement. The methods described can be transferred directly to industrial applications
Stresses in repair welding of high-strength steels—part 2: heat control and stress optimization
(2024)
In welding of high-strength steels, e.g. for foundations and erection structures of wind energy plants, unacceptable defects can occasionally be found in the weld area, which should be removed by thermal gouging and subsequent re-welding. High shrinkage restraint of repair welds may lead to crack formation and component failure, predominantly in interaction with degraded microstructures and mechanical properties due to repair cycles. This study aims for elaboration of recommendations for repair concepts appropriate to the stresses and materials involved to avoid cold cracking, damage and expensive reworking. In part 1 [1] of this study, systematic investigations of influences of shrinkage restraint on residual stresses and cold cracking risk during repair welding of two high-strength steels S500MLO for offshore application and S960QL for mobile crane structures were focussed. In this part 2, the microstructure, particularly hardness, and residual stresses due to gouging and influences of heat control parameters in repair welding are analysed. A clear reduction in residual stress after gouging can be observed, especially for the specimens with restrained transverse shrinkage. Gouging to a depth of approx. 2/3 of the seam height does not lead to a complete relaxation of the observed reaction forces. Particularly for the higher strength steel S960QL, there are pronounced areas influenced by the gouging process in which a degradation of the microstructure and properties should be assumed. Overall, the repair welds show a significant increase in the width of the weld and HAZ compared to the original weld, especially in the case of S960QL/G89. The repair welds show higher welding-induced stresses than the original welds, especially in the areas of the HAZ and the base metal close to the weld seam. This behaviour can be attributed overall to increased restraint conditions due to the remaining root weld or shorter gouge grooves. In good agreement with earlier investigations, the residual stresses transverse to the weld can be significantly reduced by upwardly limited working or interpass temperatures, and the reaction stresses resulting from high restraint conditions can be effectively counteracted. The influence of the heat input on the stress formation is low compared to the interpass temperature for both test materials.
The presentation gives an overview of BAM's activities on processing influences and application properties of MPEAs in the form of joined and machined high and medium entropy alloys (CoCrFeMnNi and CoCrNi). In the case of welding, the focus is on defect-free welded joints with sufficient mechanical properties. In the case of machining, the focus is on the possible influence on the surface quality of the materials through adequate milling parameters. In addition, the hydrogen absorption and diffusion properties as well as the electrochemical corrosion behavior are fundamentally examined.
Die additive Fertigung mittels Schweißverfahren bietet große ökonomische Vorteile für eine ressourceneffiziente Bauteilherstellung. Offene Fragen bezüglich Homogenität, Anisotropie der Schweißgefüge und den damit verbundenen Bauteileigenschaften stehen einer wirtschaftlichen Verarbeitung oftmals im Wege. Finale Bauteilgeometrie und Oberflächengüte erfordern meist komplementäre subtraktive Fertigungsschritte. Werkstoffe für hochbelastbare Komponenten sind oftmals schwer spanbar. In einem Vorhaben der BAM und des ISAF wurde untersucht, wie die Modifikation der AM-Schweißzusätze und das ultraschallunterstützte Fräsen (US) die Zerspanungssituation verbessern. Der vorliegende Artikel stellt wesentliche Zusammenhänge zwischen Legierung, Gefüge und Zerspanung zweier schwer spanbarer Hochleistungslegierungen (FeNi und CoCr) dar. Großes Potenzial zeigte neben dem US die Modifikation mit Zr und Hf bei Zulegierung in das Schweißgut mittels Beschichtung von Massivdrähten bzw. Herstellung von Fülldrähten.
Bruchmechanik-basierende Methoden können für die Ermüdungsbewertung von mechanischen Bauteilen angewendet werden, die Defekte oder Risse enthalten und zyklischen Belastungen ausgesetzt sind. Die Kenntnis des Risswachstumsverhaltens für kurze und lange Risse ermöglicht die Bestimmung sowohl endlicher als auch unendlicher Lebensdauer. Ein erstes Problem ergibt sich jedoch aus der empirischen Bestimmung von Ermüdungswerkstoffkennwerten, die je nach Prüfbedingungen, z. B. Prüfmethode, Frequenz und Spannungsverhältnis R, variieren. Dies ist auf die Rissschließeffekte und weitere Umgebungsphänomene zurückzuführen, die das Rissfortschrittsverhalten beeinflussen. Ein zweites Problem ist das Fehlen von Standardversuchsverfahren zur Bestimmung des Schwellenwerts gegen Ermüdungsrissausbreitung ΔKth in Abhängigkeit von der Rissausbreitung. Dies ist problematisch, da ΔKth mit der Zunahme der Rissschließeffekte im Kurzrissbereich zunimmt und seine ungenaue experimentelle Bestimmung zu großen Abweichungen bei der Bewertung und, was noch kritischer ist, zu nicht konservativen Vorhersagen führt. Mit dem Ziel, zuverlässigere und sicherere Bewertungsverfahren bereitzustellen, wird in dieser Arbeit eine Methode vorgeschlagen, die auf effektiven Risswachstumsdaten basiert, die bei hohen Spannungsverhältnissen (R ≈ 0,8) ermittelt wurden. Zur Beschreibung der Entwicklung der Rissschließeffekte wird ein Kurzrissmodell auf der Grundlage von zyklischen R-Kurven und CPLR-Daten verwendet. Die analytischen Vorhersagen werden mit experimentellen Daten verglichen, die zur Validierung des Verfahrens durchgeführt wurden, und die daraus entstandenen Unterschiede werden diskutiert.
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Im Rahmen eines Kooperationsprojekts mit der Schottel GmbH wurde eine bauteilnahe Probengeometrie entwickelt, mit der sich unter Verwendung einer einachsigen Prüfmaschine das Spannungstiefenprofil in dem unter überlagerter Biege- und Zugspannung beanspruchtem Querschnitt im Schweißnahtübergang des Bauteils reproduzieren ließ.
Proben dieser Geometrie wurden vom Kooperationspartner im geschweißten bzw. geschweißten und spannungsarmgeglühten Zustand bereitgestellt. An der BAM wurden je Wärmebehandlungszustand mittels Senkerodieren zwei verschiedene künstliche Defektgeometrien im Schweißnahtübergang eingebracht.
Anhand der Proben wurden experimentell für alle vier Probenzustände Wöhlerlinien für ein Spannungsverhältnis von R = 0,1 ermittelt.
Zusätzlich wurde das u.a. an der BAM entwickelte IBESS-Verfahren angewandt, um die Wöhlerlinien analytisch zu bestimmen. Hierbei wurde eine sehr gute Übereinstimmung von Berechnung und Experiment erreicht, wobei die Berechnung zu einer leicht konservativen Lebensdauervorhersage führte.
The weldability of stainless steels is largely controlled by the chemical composition, and alloys with ferritic or ferritic-austenitic solidification show the highest resistance to hot cracking. As the resulting phase balance also
affects the final properties, it may be beneficial to both foresee and measure the weld metal ferrite content. The WRC ’92 constitution diagram is currently the most accurate prediction tool available, but it does not take the cooling rate into consideration and the precision may be less accurate for stainless steels with high ferrite numbers (FN). This study aims to validate the reliability of the WRC ’92 diagram for weld metals with FN > 50. The chemical composition was altered through gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) of UNS S32205 with ER347 filler wire that had been PVD-coated with either niobium (Nb), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), carbon (C), or silicon (Si). The actual ferrite content was assessed using image analysis, FERITSCOPE® and X-ray diffraction (XRD). While the WRC ’92 diagram predictions were deemed accurate to acceptable for Ni, Si, and Mn, notable deviations were observed for Nb, Cu, and C. The FeriteScope exhibited a consistent trend with image analysis, though the values were higher, and scatter was wider, and the conversion factor is open for discussion. The lowest accuracy and largest spread were obtained using non-contact XRD, rendering it unsuitable for ferrite measurements of welds.
Multiple principal element alloys encompass the well-known high entropy alloys (HEA). The alloy system represents a new class of materials consisting of at least three alloying elements, each containing 5 to 35 at.%. Thus, this alloying concept differs fundamentally from conventional materials such as steel or nickel alloys. For this purpose, the alloying elements are specifically selected, the microstructures are adjusted in a single-phase and, in some cases, multi-phase manner. In particular, conflicting goals, such as the trade-off between strength and ductility in conventional steels, are overcome. However, in the last 20 years, the focus has been on material synthesis. With the increase in available material quantities, the focus is now on processing issues such as joining and welding processes. The weldability of HEAs has received very little attention so far. The experience with dissimilar metal welds is completely lacking but is essential for the application of these materials in combination with conventional materials. The present study presents comprehensive experimental results on the weldability of an equimolar CoCrFeMnNi-HEA in cold-rolled and heat-treated condition, which was joined by tungsten inert gas welding to an austenitic steel AISI 304. The mechanical properties of the dissimilar metal welds were characterized by cross-weld tensile samples, whereas the local deformation in the weld of the different welding zones was measured by digital image correlation. In accordance with the respective initial HEA condition (cold-rolled vs. heat-treated), the local strain behavior was divergent and influenced the global mechanical properties of both DMW types. Nonetheless, the experiments provided proof in principle of the weldability for dissimilar joints of the CoCrFeMnNi-HEA welded to conventional materials like austenitic stainless steels ensuring a corresponding capability for mechanical loading. This allows further considerations on the application of these innovative materials.
Die Erzeugung rissschließfreier Anrisse in gekerbten bruchmechanischen Proben für anschließende Ermüdungsversuche kann durch eine zyklische Druckbelastung an der Kerbe erfolgen: Bei der Erstbelastung wird eine plastische Verformung an der Kerbspitze erzeugt, welche Zugeigenspannungen und damit eine risstreibende Kraft bei der folgenden zyklischen Druckbelastung hervorruft. Durch das Risswachstum kommt es zu einer Entspannung, bis der Riss schließlich arretiert, weil die effektive risstreibende Kraft auf den Schwellenwert abgesunken ist. Um Kurzrisswachstum in additiv, mittels pulverbettbasiertem Laserstrahlschmelzen (Laser Powder Bed Fusion - LPBF) gefertigtem AISI 316L Stahl und seinem konventionell erzeugten, warmgewalzten Pendant zu untersuchen, wurde dieses Verfahren im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit genutzt. Im Falle des additiv gefertigten Materials kam es zu unerwartet langem Ermüdungsrisswachstum, bevor der Riss arretierte. Zur Ermittlung der Ursache erfolgte eine Messung der Eigenspannungsverteilungen mittels Neutronendiffraktion in der Kerbebene der additiv gefertigten Proben. Anschließend wurde ein Finite-Elemente-Modell zur Simulation des Ermüdungsrisswachstums in konventionellem und additiv gefertigtem Material implementiert. Im Rahmen dieses Vortrages wird insbesondere auf das Vorgehen bei der Simulation und auf die getroffenen Annahmen und Vereinfachungen eingegangen. Die Resultate werden mit den experimentellen Ergebnissen verglichen und das für die Simulation von Risswachstum genutzte Knoten-Freigabe-Verfahren (Node-Release), das Einbringen von Eigenspannungen als initiale Spannungen in der Simulation, und die Rechengrößen zur Quantifizierung der risstreibenden Kraft kritisch diskutiert.
AbstractThe sustainable and resource-efficient production of wind energy plants requires the use of modern high-strength fine-grain structural steels. This applies to both foundation and erection structures, like mobile or ship cranes. During the assembly of steel structures, unacceptable defects can occasionally be found in the weld area. In most cases, the economical solution would be local thermal gouging of the affected areas and re-welding. Due to the high shrinkage restraint of the joint groove in the overall structure, the superposition of global and local welding-induced stresses may lead to crack formation and component failure, particularly in interaction with the degradation of the microstructure and mechanical properties of high-strength steels during the repair process. However, manufacturers hardly have any information about these issues and there is a lack of recommendations and guidelines to take these safety-relevant aspects into account in adequate repair concepts. The aim of this research is to derive recommendations for repair concepts appropriate to the stresses and materials involved providing a basis for standards and guidelines to avoid cold cracking, damage and expensive reworking especially for high-strength steels. Part 1 of this study involves systematic investigations of influences of shrinkage restraint during repair welding of two high-strength steels S500MLO for offshore application and S960QL for mobile crane structures. The quantification of the shrinkage restraint of repair weld joints was achieved by means of experimental and numerical restraint intensity analysis. In welding experiments with self-restrained slot specimens, restraint intensity and introduction of hydrogen via the welding arc using anti spatter spray were varied systematically to analyse the effect on welding result, residual stresses and cold cracking. It could be shown that increasing restraint intensities result in significantly higher transverse residual stress levels. In the case of hydrogen introduction S500MLO showed no cold cracking independent of the restraint conditions. However, S960QL was found to be considerably cold cracking sensitive if hydrogen is introduced. With increasing restraint intensity length and number of cold cracks increases significantly. Part 2 [1] of this study is focussed on microstructure and residual stresses due to gouging and stress optimization via adequate heat control parameters in repair welding.