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Stresses in repair welding of high-strength steels—part 2: heat control and stress optimization
(2024)
In welding of high-strength steels, e.g. for foundations and erection structures of wind energy plants, unacceptable defects can occasionally be found in the weld area, which should be removed by thermal gouging and subsequent re-welding. High shrinkage restraint of repair welds may lead to crack formation and component failure, predominantly in interaction with degraded microstructures and mechanical properties due to repair cycles. This study aims for elaboration of recommendations for repair concepts appropriate to the stresses and materials involved to avoid cold cracking, damage and expensive reworking. In part 1 [1] of this study, systematic investigations of influences of shrinkage restraint on residual stresses and cold cracking risk during repair welding of two high-strength steels S500MLO for offshore application and S960QL for mobile crane structures were focussed. In this part 2, the microstructure, particularly hardness, and residual stresses due to gouging and influences of heat control parameters in repair welding are analysed. A clear reduction in residual stress after gouging can be observed, especially for the specimens with restrained transverse shrinkage. Gouging to a depth of approx. 2/3 of the seam height does not lead to a complete relaxation of the observed reaction forces. Particularly for the higher strength steel S960QL, there are pronounced areas influenced by the gouging process in which a degradation of the microstructure and properties should be assumed. Overall, the repair welds show a significant increase in the width of the weld and HAZ compared to the original weld, especially in the case of S960QL/G89. The repair welds show higher welding-induced stresses than the original welds, especially in the areas of the HAZ and the base metal close to the weld seam. This behaviour can be attributed overall to increased restraint conditions due to the remaining root weld or shorter gouge grooves. In good agreement with earlier investigations, the residual stresses transverse to the weld can be significantly reduced by upwardly limited working or interpass temperatures, and the reaction stresses resulting from high restraint conditions can be effectively counteracted. The influence of the heat input on the stress formation is low compared to the interpass temperature for both test materials.
The presentation gives an overview of BAM's activities on processing influences and application properties of MPEAs in the form of joined and machined high and medium entropy alloys (CoCrFeMnNi and CoCrNi). In the case of welding, the focus is on defect-free welded joints with sufficient mechanical properties. In the case of machining, the focus is on the possible influence on the surface quality of the materials through adequate milling parameters. In addition, the hydrogen absorption and diffusion properties as well as the electrochemical corrosion behavior are fundamentally examined.
Die additive Fertigung mittels Schweißverfahren bietet große ökonomische Vorteile für eine ressourceneffiziente Bauteilherstellung. Offene Fragen bezüglich Homogenität, Anisotropie der Schweißgefüge und den damit verbundenen Bauteileigenschaften stehen einer wirtschaftlichen Verarbeitung oftmals im Wege. Finale Bauteilgeometrie und Oberflächengüte erfordern meist komplementäre subtraktive Fertigungsschritte. Werkstoffe für hochbelastbare Komponenten sind oftmals schwer spanbar. In einem Vorhaben der BAM und des ISAF wurde untersucht, wie die Modifikation der AM-Schweißzusätze und das ultraschallunterstützte Fräsen (US) die Zerspanungssituation verbessern. Der vorliegende Artikel stellt wesentliche Zusammenhänge zwischen Legierung, Gefüge und Zerspanung zweier schwer spanbarer Hochleistungslegierungen (FeNi und CoCr) dar. Großes Potenzial zeigte neben dem US die Modifikation mit Zr und Hf bei Zulegierung in das Schweißgut mittels Beschichtung von Massivdrähten bzw. Herstellung von Fülldrähten.
Multiple principal element alloys encompass the well-known high entropy alloys (HEA). The alloy system represents a new class of materials consisting of at least three alloying elements, each containing 5 to 35 at.%. Thus, this alloying concept differs fundamentally from conventional materials such as steel or nickel alloys. For this purpose, the alloying elements are specifically selected, the microstructures are adjusted in a single-phase and, in some cases, multi-phase manner. In particular, conflicting goals, such as the trade-off between strength and ductility in conventional steels, are overcome. However, in the last 20 years, the focus has been on material synthesis. With the increase in available material quantities, the focus is now on processing issues such as joining and welding processes. The weldability of HEAs has received very little attention so far. The experience with dissimilar metal welds is completely lacking but is essential for the application of these materials in combination with conventional materials. The present study presents comprehensive experimental results on the weldability of an equimolar CoCrFeMnNi-HEA in cold-rolled and heat-treated condition, which was joined by tungsten inert gas welding to an austenitic steel AISI 304. The mechanical properties of the dissimilar metal welds were characterized by cross-weld tensile samples, whereas the local deformation in the weld of the different welding zones was measured by digital image correlation. In accordance with the respective initial HEA condition (cold-rolled vs. heat-treated), the local strain behavior was divergent and influenced the global mechanical properties of both DMW types. Nonetheless, the experiments provided proof in principle of the weldability for dissimilar joints of the CoCrFeMnNi-HEA welded to conventional materials like austenitic stainless steels ensuring a corresponding capability for mechanical loading. This allows further considerations on the application of these innovative materials.
AbstractThe sustainable and resource-efficient production of wind energy plants requires the use of modern high-strength fine-grain structural steels. This applies to both foundation and erection structures, like mobile or ship cranes. During the assembly of steel structures, unacceptable defects can occasionally be found in the weld area. In most cases, the economical solution would be local thermal gouging of the affected areas and re-welding. Due to the high shrinkage restraint of the joint groove in the overall structure, the superposition of global and local welding-induced stresses may lead to crack formation and component failure, particularly in interaction with the degradation of the microstructure and mechanical properties of high-strength steels during the repair process. However, manufacturers hardly have any information about these issues and there is a lack of recommendations and guidelines to take these safety-relevant aspects into account in adequate repair concepts. The aim of this research is to derive recommendations for repair concepts appropriate to the stresses and materials involved providing a basis for standards and guidelines to avoid cold cracking, damage and expensive reworking especially for high-strength steels. Part 1 of this study involves systematic investigations of influences of shrinkage restraint during repair welding of two high-strength steels S500MLO for offshore application and S960QL for mobile crane structures. The quantification of the shrinkage restraint of repair weld joints was achieved by means of experimental and numerical restraint intensity analysis. In welding experiments with self-restrained slot specimens, restraint intensity and introduction of hydrogen via the welding arc using anti spatter spray were varied systematically to analyse the effect on welding result, residual stresses and cold cracking. It could be shown that increasing restraint intensities result in significantly higher transverse residual stress levels. In the case of hydrogen introduction S500MLO showed no cold cracking independent of the restraint conditions. However, S960QL was found to be considerably cold cracking sensitive if hydrogen is introduced. With increasing restraint intensity length and number of cold cracks increases significantly. Part 2 [1] of this study is focussed on microstructure and residual stresses due to gouging and stress optimization via adequate heat control parameters in repair welding.
Die additive Fertigung mittels Schweißverfahren bietet große ökonomische Vorteile für eine ressourceneffiziente Bauteilherstellung. Offene Fragen bezüglich Homogenität, Anisotropie der Schweißgefüge und den damit verbundenen Bauteileigenschaften stehen einer wirtschaftlichen Verarbeitung oftmals im Wege. Finale Bauteilgeometrie und Oberflächengüte erfordern meist komplementäre subtraktive Fertigungsschritte. Werkstoffe für hochbelastbare Komponenten sind oftmals schwer spanbar. In einem Vorhaben der BAM und des ISAF wurde untersucht, wie die Modifikation der AM-Schweißzusätze und das ultraschallunterstützte Fräsen (US) die Zerspanungssituation verbessern. Der vorliegende Artikel stellt wesentliche Zusammenhänge zwischen Legierung, Gefüge und Zerspanung zweier schwer spanbarer Hochleistungslegierungen (FeNi und CoCr) dar. Großes Potenzial zeigte neben dem US die Modifikation mit Zr und Hf bei Zulegierung in das Schweißgut mittels Beschichtung von Massivdrähten bzw. Herstellung von Fülldrähten.
In der Abschlusspräsentation des ZIM-Kooperationsvorhabens "TeWuFeAl" werden die wichtigsten Ergebnisse zusammengefasst dargestellt. Ziel des Projektes war die Entwicklung einer Prozess- und Werkzeugtechnologie für das ultraschallunterstützte Fräsen von im Kokillenguss hergestellter Eisen- und Titan-Aluminid-Bauteilen. Auf Basis einer eigens entwickelten Werkzeugtechnologie und Prozessführung konnten die Belastungen auf das Werkzeug und die Oberfläche von Bauteilen aus dem schwer zerspanbaren Eisenaluminid bei der frästechnischen Bearbeitung signifikant verringert werden. Die Messung der Prozesskräfte und der thermischen Belastung der Werkzeugschneide ermöglicht die Ermittlung geeigneter Zerspanungsparameter für eine maximale Werkzeuglebensdauer. Die Anwendung des ultraschallunterstützten Fräsens (USAM) wirkt sich vorteilhaft auf den Zerspanprozess aus. Neben einer deutlichen verlängerung der Werkzeuglebensdauer, zeigen sich Vorteile in Bezug auf die topographischen, metallurgischen sowie mechanischen Eigenschaften der erzeugten Oberflächenintegrität. Die durch USAM erzeugte homogene Bauteiloberfläche weist eine reduzierte Defektdichte und verringerte Rauheitskennwerte auf. Besonders vielversprechend sind die Ergebnisse der Messungen der Eigenspannungen im Tiefenprofil der Oberfläche. Die Werkzeugoszillation bewirkt eine, vergleichbar zum Strahlprozess, Verdichtung der Oberfläche was in Druckeigenspannungen resultiert. Diese potenziell vorteilhaften Druckeigenspannungen können maßgeblich zur Risssicherheit hochbelasteter Komponenten und somit zum Leichtbau und Ressourceneffizienz beitragen.
High-strength steels offer potential for weight optimization due to reduced wall thicknesses in modern constructions. Additive manufacturing processes such as Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) enable the resource-efficient production of structures. In the case of defects occurring in weld seams orWAAM components due to unstable process conditions, the economical solution is local gouging or machining and repair welding. It is important to understand the effects of machining steps on the multiaxial stress state in conjunction with the design-related shrinkage restraints. Research into how welding and slot milling of welds andWAAM structures affects residual stresses is still lacking. For this reason, component-related investigations with high-strength steels with yield strengths ≥790 MPa are carried out in our research. In-situ digital image correlation (DIC) and ex-situ X-ray diffraction (XRD) were used to analyze the stresses and strains induced on specimens during and after milling. The systematic analyses revealed a significant interaction of the stiffness and microstructure of the specimens with the initial residual stresses induced by welding. Subsequent repair welds can result in significantly higher residual stresses.
Additive manufacturing (AM) processes enable the efficient production of advanced constructions. New developments in topology optimization are leading to weight-optimized designs of increasing complexity. Direct energy deposition processes (DED) such as wire and arc-based additive manufacturing are an important method of additive manufacturing. The wire filler metals enable a wide range of materials, while the arc process provides a high deposition rate compared to laser and powder-based processes. Combined with the use of high-strength steels, the thickness of walls or components can be significantly reduced in the context of lightweight construction, which results in significant savings in energy, costs, time and resources. Suitable high-strength steel filler metals are commercially available for DED-arc AM processes. However, guidelines and quantitative knowledge about welding stresses and cold cracking issues during component production and service are lacking. This limits the industrial application considerably. In a joint project of BAM and Chemnitz University of Technology, the main influences and complex interactions of material, production process, design and processing steps on the residual stress level are investigated. The aim is to develop processing recommendations and a cold cracking test for economical processing and stress-related design of high-strength steels with DED-arc. This study focuses on residual stress analysis by neutron diffraction (ND) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) on defined test specimens. The ND analysis were performed at the Paul Scherrer Institute- Villigen, Switzerland (PSI) and the XRD analysis at BAM. The study shows a quantitative and qualitative comparison of the residual stress magnitudes and distribution between the component bulk (ND) and surface (XRD) analyses. The ND analysis reveals that in DED-arc AM walls the residual stresses dominate in the direction of welding and are negligibly small in each case transverse to the direction of welding. The topology of the analyzed residual stresses shows almost identical residual stress maps compared to XRD. In addition, the residual stresses are significantly influenced by the solid phase transformation of the material due to low cooling times and less post heat treatment cycles of following AM layers in the area of the top layer.