Analytische Chemie
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Minimally invasive injection of calcium phosphate cement into bone defects in aged sheep vertebrae has been used as a model for the treatment of osteoporotic vertebral fractures. One of the therapeutic criteria is a compression test of non-treated or treated vertebral bodies. In the present study, an in situ compression test with a stepwise load increase was performed with small spongiosa cylinders from the vertebrae under continuous monitoring by μCT. This allows localization of bone cracks and the visualization of correct placement and form of the bone cylinder. In addition, the effects of an uneven load distribution on the sample due to an irregular shape and a subsequent underperformance of the test sample can be excluded by controlling its shape under increasing load. There was a good agreement between the measured data and those obtained by simulated load-dependent transformation on the basis of a digital volume correlation between consecutive compression tests on the bone surface under the assumption of homogeneous bone material. Mechanic simulation was executed by directly using structural voxel data, resulting in maps of Von Mise stresses and predicted displacements.
Soil structure, the spatial arrangement of soil elements, integrates a variety of drivers in agricultural soil (parent material, tillage, crop rotation, organic fertilizer, below ground biodiversity). It is related to almost all soil functions.
Relationships between soil structure and the carbon sequestration potential of soil are known from the comparison of different land use systems (grassland vs. tilled soils ) and are expected to be a general phenomenon.
Therefore , we expect soil structure assessed by modern non - destructive methods to be a valuable tool for the optimization of soil organic matter management in agricultural soils
Subject of this investigation is the in-situ evolution of pore volume and pore size distribution in Ytong (a porous concrete material) under increasing pressure with two different non-destructive analytical methods: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) and X-ray Computed Tomography (CT). For both methods special strain devices to apply external pressure were constructed. The results from the two techniques yield complementary information on the pore size distribution and allows covering different pore size regions.
The DIRECTT (Direct Iterative REconstruction of Computed Tomography Trajectories) algorithm represents a promising alternative to conventional algorithms, such as the Filtered Backprojection (FBP) or the Algebraic Reconstruction Technique (ART), by overcoming restrictions associated with them. Such restrictions include the limited spatial resolution achieved through FBP due to Nyquist‘s sampling theorem, the inability of FBP to perform a quality reconstruction when projections are missing, and the excessive computing time needed for ART.
Additive Manufacturing (AM) in terms of laser powder-bed fusion (L-PBF) offers new prospects regarding the design of parts and enables therefore the production of lattice structures. These lattice structures shall be implemented in various industrial applications (e.g. gas turbines) for reasons of material savings or cooling
channels. However, internal defects, residual stress, and structural deviations from the nominal geometry are unavoidable.
In this work, the structural integrity of lattice structures manufactured by means of L-PBF was non-destructively investigated on a multiscale approach.
A workflow for quantitative 3D powder analysis in terms of particle size, particle shape, particle porosity, inter-particle distance and packing density was established.
Synchrotron computed tomography (CT) was used to correlate the packing
density with the particle size and particle shape. It was also observed that at least about 50% of the powder porosity was released during production of the struts.
Struts are the component of lattice structures and were investigated by means of laboratory CT. The focus was on the influence of the build angle on part porosity and surface quality. The surface topography analysis was advanced by the quantitative characterisation of re-entrant surface features. This characterisation was compared with conventional surface parameters showing their complementary
information, but also the need for AM specific surface parameters.
The mechanical behaviour of the lattice structure was investigated with in-situ CT under compression and successive digital volume correlation (DVC). The Deformation was found to be knot-dominated, and therefore the lattice folds unit cell layer wise.
The residual stress was determined experimentally for the first time in such lattice structures. Neutron diffraction was used for the non-destructive 3D stress investigation. The principal stress directions and values were determined in dependence of the number of measured directions. While a significant uni-axial stress state was found in the strut, a more hydrostatic stress state was found in the knot. In both cases, strut and knot, seven directions were at least needed to
find reliable principal stress directions.
Digital Volume Correlation (DVC) is a powerful set of techniques used to compute the local shifts of 3D images obtained, for instance, in tomographic experiments. It is utilized to analyze the geometric changes of the investigated object as well as to correct the corresponding image misalignments for further analysis. It can therefore be used to evaluate the local density changes of the same regions of the inspected specimens, which might be shifted between measurements. In recent years, various approaches and corresponding pieces of software were introduced. Accuracies for the computed shift vectors of up to about 1‰of a single voxel size have been reported. These results, however, were based either on synthetic datasets or on an unrealistic setup. In this work, we propose two simple methods to evaluate the accuracy of DVC-techniques using more realistic input data and apply them to several DVC programs. We test these methods on three materials (tuff, sandstone, and concrete) that show different contrast and structural features.
One of the great strengths of X-ray computed tomography over conventional inspection methods (ultrasound, thermography, radiography) is that it can image damage in 3D. However for curved or deformed composite panels, it can be difficult to automatically ascribe the damage to specific plies or inter-ply interfaces. An X-ray computed tomography (CT) data processing methodology is developed to extract the through-thickness distribution of damage in curved or deformed composite panels. The method is applied to [(0°/90°)2]s carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) panels subjected low velocity impact damage (5 J up to 20 J) providing 3D ply-by-ply damage visualisation and analysis. Our distance transform approach allows slices to be taken that approximately follow the composite curvature allowing the impact damage to be separated, visualised and quantified in 3D on a ply-by-ply basis. In this way the interply delaminations have been mapped, showing characteristic peanut shaped delaminations with the major axis oriented with the fibres in the ply below the interface. This registry to the profile of the panel constitutes a significant improvement in our ability to characterise impact damage in composite laminates and extract relevant measurements from X-ray CT datasets.
Nominal-actual comparisons are routinely performed to compare a manufactured specimen to a reference specimen. X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) has brought a profound change in the way that tolerance verifications are performed in industry, by allowing the inner and outer geometries of an object to be measured, without the need for external access or destructive testing. As a results, CT is increasingly used in additive manufacturing applications, where a nominal-actual comparison performed between the digital model (CAD file), used as an input for the 3D printer, and the CT volume from the printed part, can provide invaluable information as to the accuracy of the printing process. However, the nominal-actual comparison process is somewhat different when applied to additively manufactured specimens by comparison to conventionally manufactured specimens.
Nominal-actual comparisons are routinely performed to compare a manufactured specimen to a reference specimen. X-ray Computed Tomography (CT) has brought a profound change in the way that tolerance verifications are performed in industry, by allowing the inner and outer geometries of an object to be measured, without the need for external access or destructive testing. As a results, CT is increasingly used in additive manufacturing applications, where a nominal-actual comparison performed between the digital model (CAD file), used as an input for the 3D printer, and the CT volume from the printed part, can provide invaluable information as to the accuracy of the printing process. However, the nominal-actual comparison process is somewhat different when applied to additively manufactured specimens by comparison to conventionally manufactured specimens.
X-ray computed tomography has many applications in materials science and non-destructive testing. While the standard filtered back-projection reconstruction of the radiographic data sets is fast and simple, it typically fails in returning accurate results from missing or inconsistent projections. Among the alternative techniques that have been proposed to handle such data is the Direct Iterative REconstruction of Computed Tomography Trajectories (DIRECTT) algorithm. We describe a new approach to the algorithm, which significantly decreases the computational time, while achieving a better reconstruction quality than that of other established algorithms.
The quantitative analysis of microstructural features is a key to understanding the micromechanical behavior of metal matrix composites (MMCs), which is a premise for their use in practice. Herein, a 3D microstructural characterization of a five-phase MMC is performed by synchrotron X-ray computed tomography (SXCT). A workflow for advanced deep learning-based segmentation of all individual phases in SXCT data is shown using a fully convolutional neural network with U-net architecture. High segmentation accuracy is achieved with a small amount of training data. This enables extracting unprecedently precise microstructural parameters (e.g., volume fractions and particle shapes) to be input, e.g., in micromechanical models.
It is fundamental to determine the machine geometry accurately for dimensional X-ray computed tomography (XCT) measurements. When performing high-accuracy scans, compensation of a non-static geometry, e.g. due to rotary axis errors or drift, might become necessary. Here we provide an overview of methods to determine and account for such deviations on a per projection basis. They include characterisation of stage error motions, in situ geometry measurements, numerical simulations, and reconstruction-based optimization relying on image quality metrics and will be discussed in terms of their metrological performance. Since a radiographic calibration is always required to provide an initial absolute geometry, this method will be presented as well.
Layer-by-layer additive manufacturing (AM) by means of laser-powder bed Fusion (L-PBF) offers many prospects regarding the design of lattice structures used, for example, in gas turbines. However, defects such as bulk porosity, Surface roughness, and re-entrant features are exacerbated in nonvertical structures, such as tilted struts. The characterization and quantification of these kinds of
defects are essential for the correct estimation of fracture and fatigue properties.
Herein, cylindrical struts fabricated by L-PBF are investigated by means of X-ray computed tomography (XCT), with the aim of casting light on the dependence of the three kinds of defects (bulk porosity, surface roughness, and re-entrant features) on the build angle. Innovative analysis methods are proposed to correlate shape and position of pores, to determine the angular-resolved Surface roughness, and to quantify the amount of re-entrant surface features, q. A meshing of the XCT surface enables the correlation of q with the classical Surface roughness Pa. This analysis leads to the conclusion that there is a linear correlation between q and Pa. However, it is conjectured that there must be a threshold of surface roughness, below which no re-entrant features can be build.
The reconstruction of cone-beam computed tomography data using filtered back-projection algorithms unavoidably results in severe artefacts. We describe how the Direct Iterative Reconstruction of Computed Tomography Trajectories (DIRECTT) algorithm can be combined with a model of the artefacts for the reconstruction of such data. The implementation of DIRECTT results in reconstructed volumes of superior quality compared to the conventional algorithms.
The overview of the activity of group 8.5 Micro-NDT (BAM, Belin, Germany) in the field of additively manufacturing material characterization will be presented. The challenges in the residual stress analysis of AM components are discussed on the basis on the show studies performed in BAM. Also, the synchrotron X-ray refraction technique, available in BAM, is presented, showing example of in-situ heating test of Al10SiMg AM material.
Additively manufactured (AM) metallic sheet-based Triply Periodic Minimal Surface Structures (TPMSS) meet several requirements in both bio-medical and engineering fields: Tunable mechanical properties, low sensitivity to manufacturing defects, mechanical stability, and high energy absorption. However, they also present some challenges related to quality control. In fact, the optimization of both the AM process and the properties of TPMSS is impossible without considering structural characteristics as manufacturing accuracy, internal defects, and as well as surface topography and roughness. In this study, the quantitative non-destructive analysis of TPMSS manufactured from Ti-6Al-4V alloy by electron beam melting was performed by means of laboratory X-ray computed tomography (XCT).
In X-ray computed tomography (XCT), an X-ray beam of intensity I0 is transmitted through an object and its attenuated intensity I is measured when it exits the object. The attenuation of the beam depends on the attenuation coefficients along its path. The attenuation coefficients provide information about the structure and composition of the object and can be determined through mathematical operations that are referred to as reconstruction. The standard reconstruction algorithms are based on the filtered backprojection (FBP) of the measured data. While these algorithms are fast and relatively simple, they do not always succeed in computing a precise reconstruction, especially from under-sampled data. Alternatively, an image or volume can be reconstructed by solving a system of linear equations. Typically, the system of equations is too large to be solved but its solution can be approximated by iterative methods, such as the Simultaneous Iterative Reconstruction Technique (SIRT) and the Conjugate Gradient Least Squares (CGLS). This dissertation focuses on the development of a novel iterative algorithm, the Direct Iterative Reconstruction of Computed Tomography Trajectories (DIRECTT). After its reconstruction principle is explained, its performance is assessed for real parallel- and cone-beam CT (including under-sampled) data and compared to that of other established algorithms. Finally, it is demonstrated how the shape of the measured object can be modelled into DIRECTT to achieve even better reconstruction results.
While the problem of the identification of mechanisms of hydrogen assisted damage has and is being thoroughly studied, the quantitative analysis of such damage still lacks suitable tools. In fact, while, for instance, electron microscopy yields excellent characterization, the quantitative analysis of damage requires at the same time large field-of-views and high spatial resolution. Synchrotron X-ray refraction techniques do possess both features. In this work, we show how synchrotron X-ray refraction computed tomography (SXRCT) can quantify damage induced by hydrogen embrittlement in a lean duplex steel, yielding results that overperform even those achievable by synchrotron X-ray absorption computed tomography. As already reported in literature, but this time using a non-destructive technique, we show that the hydrogen charge does not penetrate to the center of tensile specimens. By the comparison between virgin and hydrogen-charged specimens, we deduce that cracks in the specimen bulk are due to the rolling process rather than hydrogen-assisted. We show that (micro)cracks propagate from the surface of tensile specimens to the interior with increasing applied strain, and we deduce that a significant crack propagation can only be observed short before rupture.