Analytische Chemie
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Interfaces provide the structural basis for function as, for example, encountered in nature in the membrane-embedded photosystem or in technology in solar cells. Synthetic functional multilayers of molecules cooperating in a coupled manner can be fabricated on surfaces through layer-by-layer self-assembly. Ordered arrays of stimuli-responsive rotaxanes undergoing well-controlled axle shuttling are excellent candidates for coupled mechanical motion. Such stimuli-responsive surfaces may help integrating synthetic molecular machines in larger systems exhibiting even macroscopic effects or generating mechanical work from chemical energy through cooperative action. The present work demonstrates the successful deposition of ordered mono- and multilayers of chemically switchable rotaxanes on gold surfaces. For the first time, rotaxane mono- and multilayers are shown to reversibly switch in a coupled manner between two ordered states as revealed by linear dichroism effects in angle-resolved NEXAFS spectra. Such a concerted switching process is observed only when the surfaces are well packed, while less densely packed surfaces lacking lateral order do not exhibit such effects.
In the present work, the influence of deuterium on the microstructure of a duplex stainless steel type EN 1.4462 has been characterized by Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) supported by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), focused ion beam (FIB), electron back scattered diffraction(EBSD) and energy dispersive x-ray (EDX) investigations. Characterization has been carried out before and after electrochemical charging with deuterium which has been used as a tracer, due to its similar behavior to hydrogen in the steel microstructure. In a first approach, the distribution of the deuterium occurring at temperatures above 58 °C has been visualized. Further it turned out that sub-surface micro blisters are formed in the ferrite-austenite interface, followed by the formation of needle shaped plates and subsequent cracking at the ferrite surface. In the austenite phase, parallel cracking alongside twins and hexagonal close packed (martensitic) regions has been observed. In both phases and even in the apparent interface, cracking has been associated with high deuterium concentrations, as compared to the surrounding undamaged microstructure. Sub-surface blistering in the ferrite has to be attributed to the accumulation and recombination of deuterium at the ferrite-austenite interface underneath the respective ferrite grains and after fast diffusing through this phase. Generally, the present application of chemometric imaging and structural analyses allows characterization of hydrogen assisted degradation at a sub-micron lateral resolution.
Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) and high-resolution scanning electron microscopy are well-acknowledged tools in materials characterization. The ability to map chemical species on the surface of an investigated sample with often low mass detection limits makes ToF-SIMS an essential tool in fields where many question marks concerning Degradation processes and damage mechanisms exist. The aim of this paper is to describe the power of data fusion of ToF-SIMS and high-resolution scanning electron microscopy results employing computational methods for multivariate data Analysis such as principal component analysis. As a case study the investigation of hydrogen distribution in an artificially charged Duplex stainless steel microstructure is presented aiming on a better understanding of hydrogen embrittlement.
Deuterium permeation and cracking in duplex steels as viewed by ToF-SIMS and HR-SEM with data fusion
(2016)
Better understanding of hydrogen assisted degradation and trapping mecha-nisms requires sufficient imaging techniques for respective hydrogen-microstructure interaction studies, in particular with multi-phase metallic micro-structures [1]. The present work is focusing on the elucidation of deuterium be-havior in two austenitic-ferritic duplex stainless steels (DSS) under the assumption that deuterium behaves in many ways similarly to hydrogen [2]. For case studies standard 2205 and lean 2101 DSSs were chosen due to the extensive use of these steels in industry [3]. The analyses were conducted by using a novel in-situ permeation and Time-of-Flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) imaging technique or by ex-situ ToF-SIMS imaging following electrochemical charging experiments. Another pioneering procedure was data fusion (including chemometry) of results of powerful laterally resolved chemical analysis and high resolution structural characterization techniques .
Results for the ex-situ observations showed a different influence of deuterium loading on the two steel grades as well as different damage mechanisms in each phase. Formation of sub-surface blisters between the ferrite and austenite were obtained in both the standard and the lean DSS. In both steels, an increased deuterium concentration was observed around deformed regions such as cracks, confirming that they originate from the presence of deuterium [4]. The formation of parallel cracks was obtained only in the austenite within the standard duplex whereas in the lean duplex the highest intensity of deuterium was obtained in the austenite along the ferrite-austenite interphase.
In comparison, application of the novel in-situ permeation technique enabled to register and record the deuterium permeation through the material and the respective saturation sequence of the two phases as well as the interfaces. Faster diffusion of the deuterium was observed in the ferrite and a direct proof for deuterium enrichment at the austenite-ferrite interface has been given [1]. The integration of the specified techniques gives a better insight into the processes leading to hydrogen induced failure. These two experimental techniques provide very valuable tools for elucidation of respective metallurgical failure mechanisms that can be used for the validation of respective numerical models for hydrogen assisted cracking (HAC).
Modifying or controlling surface chemistry is important in new product development, quality control and research. This is particularly true where functionality of surfaces, thin films and interfaces are key to the application, such as organic solar cells and devices for medical diagnostics. Surface chemical analysis aims to provide quantitative elemental, chemical state and functional group information from the surface of materials, but requires comparable test data and improved measurement traceability.
This paper describes austenitic-ferritic duplex stainless steels, SAF 2205, in the presence of hydrogen. The duplex stainless steels (DSS) properties include excellent resistance to stress corrosion cracking, high strength and good weldability. Those steels are preferably used in industries combining hydrogen and loads. Hydrogen location in addition to hydrogen binding energy with the steel's defects are of great importance for the analysis of hydrogen embrittlement model in that steel. It is known from previously published works that the susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement will depend on the competition between reversible and irreversible traps; meaning a direct relation to the hydrogen's state and position in the steel. In this work, we examine the local hydrogen concentration, trapping and distribution by two modern and advanced techniques: thermal desorption spectrometry (TDS) and we support it by time of flight-secondary ion mass spectrometer (ToF-SIMS). In this paper, we support and give for the first time new insights and better understanding to the hydrogen embrittlement mechanism in SAF 2205. The trapping energies levels were calculated using TDS and Lee and Lee's model. This model revealed reversible in addition to irreversible trapping sites. Also the trapping controlling mechanism was found to be a combination of detrapping controlled mechanism and diffusion controlled mechanism. The use of ToF-SIMS for local imaging the distribution of hydrogen species supports the discussion of the different hydrogen traps in this type of steel. The hydrogen embrittlemet phenomenon in SAF 2205 will be discussed in details in that paper.
The synthesis of TiO2 nanoplatelets with fluorine-containing reactants is carried out using titanium (IV) butoxide as precursor and concentrated HF as shape controller, the final product requires a working up in order to eliminate or at least to reduce the amount of residual fluorides, which is realized here by well-defined thermal treatment of the samples. Bulk and surface sensitive methods namely scanning electron microscopy with energydispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) have been applied to trace the presence of any fluorides in dependence on different information depths and measurement sensitivities of these methods.
The ferroelectric ceramic NBT and its solid solutions with barium titanate (BT) are examples for the most promising lead free materials to substitute the dominant Pb(Zr,Ti)O3 (PZT). Lead based material should generally be disregarded due to environmental and health reasons. However, there is no class of lead-free piezoelectric materials that can replace PZT entirely. Not only the often inferior ferroelectric properties but also the lack of understanding of the defect chemistry of NBT is still a challenge for the replacement of lead containing piezo-ceramics. Just recently it could be shown by Li et al. that NBT obtains extraordinarily high oxygen ionic conductivity when doped with Mg as acceptor. It was actually expected that doping just leads to a hardening of the ferroelectric properties. However, it became clear that the known defect chemical behavior of PZT cannot be extrapolated to NBT materials. Hence, to gain information on general doping effects a better defect chemical investigation is needed. This is particularly important for the applications with high reliability demands to investigate possible degradation and fatigue mechanisms.
In the present work Time-of-flight-secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) was used in order to observe the influence of different acceptor dopants (Fe, Ni, Al) on the oxygen diffusion in NBT. ToF-SIMS holds the ability to gain a full elemental distribution in a sub-micron resolution and was therefore chosen to provide the essential information on the favorable diffusion paths of oxygen in NBT in dependence of the chosen doping element. 18O was used as a tracer for oxygen as its natural abundance is only 0.2%. The doped NBT samples have been annealed for 5 h at 500°C in a 0.2 bar 18O-tracer atmosphere to be able to detect oxygen ion diffusion. ToF-SIMS investigations were conducted on a ToF-SIMS IV (ION TOF GmbH, Münster, Germany) using a Bi+ primary ion beam (25KeV in collimated burst alignment mode with a beam diameter of ~150 nm) and a Cs+ sputter beam (3KeV).
The results illustrate the different impact of dopants on the diffusion properties which is evidence for a highly non-linear dependence on dopant type and concentration.
The effect of electrochemical charging of hydrogen on the structure of a lean duplex stainless steel LDX 2101® (EN 1.4162, UNS S32101) was examined by both Time-of-Flight secondary ion mass spectrometry and electron back-scatter diffraction. The goal is to correlate hydrogen concentration and induced structural changes. Chemical and structural characterizations were done for the same region at the sample's surface with sub-micron spatial resolution. Regions of interest were varying in size between 50 × 50 μm and 100 × 100 μm. The results show a phase transformation of austenite to mainly a defect-rich BCC and scarcely a HCP phase. The phase transformation occurred in deuterium rich regions in the austenite.
Biosensoren gewinnen in den letzten Jahren zunehmend an Bedeutung. So erfolgt die Identifizierung des Analyten mit Biosensoren deutlich schneller und unkomplizierter als mit herkömmlichen analytischen Methoden. Aufgrund des Schlüssel-Schloss-Prinzips ist zudem die Detektion von Biosensoren äußerst selektiv. Die Herstellung dieser Sensoren erfolgt häufig trotz der Unzuverlässigkeit der Silanchemie über die Silanisierung der Si-H- bzw. Si-OH-Bindungen an der Silizium-Oberfläche. Die Abhängigkeit von Temperatur- und pH-Wert, sowie die Veränderung der Filmdicke bei nur kleinen Schwankungen des Wassergehalts während der Umsetzung werden oft vernachlässigt. Seltener wird die Si-NHx-Bindung genutzt, um dünne organische Filme zu erzeugen.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde eine neue Funktionalisierungsstrategie entwickelt, die die Silanchemie vermeidet. Die Idee basiert auf der Herstellung einer Azid-terminierten Oberfläche erzeugt aus Oberflächenaminen des materialintrinsischen Stickstoffs von Siliziumnitrid (Si3N4). Diese Azidgruppen bildeten die Grundlage für die Click-Chemie mit geeigneten Alkin-terminierten (Bio)molekülen und die anschließende Immobilisierung von ausgewählten Analyten. Die Funktionalisierungsstrategie umfasst die Erzeugung von NHx-terminierten Si3N4-Oberflächen durch Flusssäureätzung gefolgt von deren Umwandlung in Azidgruppen durch verschiedene Methoden. Im Anschluss wurden Alkine durch die Kupfer-katalysierte Azid-Alkin-Cycloaddition (CuAAC, Click-Chemie) an die Azid-terminierte Oberfläche immobilisiert. Der Erfolg der einzelnen Reaktionsschritte wurde durch oberflächenanalytische Methoden, durch XPS, NEXAFS und ToF-SIMS, überprüft. Die Charakterisierung der gebildeten Triazolringe erfolgte anhand des N 1s-XP-Spektrums sowie der NEXAFS C K-Kante. Die CF3-Gruppe wurde anhand der C 1s und F 1s-XP-Spektren, sowie der NEXAFS F K-Kante identifiziert. ToF-SIMS Untersuchungen bestätigten ebenfalls die Bindung des Alkins an die Si3N4-Oberfläche. Im weiteren Verlauf der Arbeit wurde die direkte Anbindung eines Biomoleküls an die Si3N4 Oberfläche getestet. Hierfür wurde das Biotin/Streptavidin-System durch eine Click-Reaktion an der Oberfläche verankert. Die erfolgreiche Biotin/Streptavidin-Interaktion wurde ebenfalls mit XPS, NEXAFS und ToF-SIMS nachgewiesen. Der Erfolg der Click-Reaktionen war sowohl bei der Methodenentwicklung als auch bei der Immobilisierung des Modellfilms vom genutzten Lösungsmittel abhängig.
Neben der direkten Immobilisierung von (Bio)molekülen an die Si3N4-Oberfläche durch die Click-Chemie gelang es auch einen Kupfer(II)trifluormethoxyphenanthrolin-Komplex als künstliche Nuklease über Amid-Kopplung an die Si-NHx-Oberfläche zu binden. Hierbei diente ein OCF3-Substituent des Kupfer(II)trifluormethoxyphenanthrolin-Komplexes als XPS-Sonde. Die Identifizierung des Komplexes erfolgte anhand der OCF3-Komponente im C 1s- und F 1s-XP-Spektrum und der NEXAFS F K-Kante, sowie des Cu 2p-XP-Spektrums. Die ToF-SIMS-Massenspektren bestätigten ebenfalls die Bindung des Komplexes. Die Kupfermenge wurde mit der Massenspektrometrie mit induktiv gekoppeltem Plasma (ICP-MS) zu 0.08 µg/cm2 bestimmt, was 87 x 1012 Kupferatome pro cm2 entspricht. Nach der Verifizierung des immobilisierten Komplexes erfolgte die Untersuchung der Spaltaktivität der auf der Si3N4-Oberfläche gebundenen künstlichen Nuklease gegenüber Plasmid-DNA. Hierbei wurde eine Zunahme der Spaltaktivität mit zunehmender DNA-Inkubationszeit festgestellt. Weiterhin ist bemerkenswert, dass der verwendete Kupfer(II)trifluormethoxyphenanthrolin-Komplex erst auf der Oberfläche seine Spaltaktivität entfaltet. Kontrollproben in Lösung zeigten im Gegensatz zu dem immobilisierten Komplex keine Spaltaktivität.