Additive Fertigung
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Organisationseinheit der BAM
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- 5 Werkstofftechnik (65)
- 8.5 Röntgenbildgebung (54)
- 5.4 Multimateriale Fertigungsprozesse (41)
- 9.3 Schweißtechnische Fertigungsverfahren (35)
- 8.3 Thermografische Verfahren (34)
- 9.4 Integrität von Schweißverbindungen (34)
- 9.6 Additive Fertigung metallischer Komponenten (21)
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Hochbelastete Stahlbauteile lassen sich durch Auftragen von Kobalt-Chrom Legierungen vor Verschleiß schützen. Die plötzliche Änderung der Materialeigenschaften führt jedoch zu Spannungen und Rissen im Anbindungsbereich. Daraus resultierende Abplatzungen stellen eine Gefahr für die Funktionsfähigkeit der Maschine und damit für Mensch und Umwelt dar. Um die Belastbarkeit der Schutzschicht zu verbessern, kann die Anbindung durch einen gradierten Materialübergang optimiert werden. Diese funktional gradierten Materialien können mittels pulverbasiertem Directed Energy Deposition aufgetragen werden. Die Methodik zum Aufbau und zur Qualitätssicherung solcher Materialien wurde in vorangegangenen Arbeiten für dickwandige Geometrien gezeigt. Für dünnwandige Geometrien ist die Anwendbarkeit bisher unzureichend untersucht worden. Diese Arbeit zeigt am Beispiel einer dünnwandigen gradierten Schneckengeometrie die Einsatzfähigkeit der Methodik. Dafür wird die Gefügestruktur der Gradierung auf Fehler untersucht und der Härteverlauf gemessen. Außerdem wird die relative Dichte anhand eines bereits trainierten neuronalen Netzes vorhergesagt und mit einer Porositätsuntersuchung verglichen.
Defects are still common in metal components built with Additive Manufacturing (AM). Process monitoring methods for laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB/M) are used in industry, but relationships between monitoring data and defect formation are not fully understood yet. Additionally, defects and deformations may develop with a time delay to the laser energy input. Thus, currently, the component quality is only determinable after the finished process.
Here, active laser thermography, a nondestructive testing method, is adapted to PBF-LB/M, using the defocused process laser as heat source. The testing can be performed layer by layer throughout the manufacturing process. We study our proposed testing method along experiments carried out on a custom research PBF-LB/M machine using infrared (IR) cameras.
Our work enables a shift from post-process testing of components towards in-situ testing during the AM process. The actual component quality is evaluated in the process chamber and defects can be detected between layers.
Ceramic additive manufacturing (AM) requires a complex process chain with various post-processing steps that require expensive machines and special expertise. The key to further market penetration is AM that makes it possible to integrate into an already established ceramic process chain. Most successful AM technologies for ceramics are, however, based on processes that initially have been developed for polymeric materials. For ceramics AM, polymers or precursors are loaded with ceramic particles. This strategy facilitates the entry into AM, however the introduction of organic additives into the ceramic process chain represents a considerable technological challenge to ultimately obtain a ceramic component after additive shaping. In the present communication, two technologies based on ceramic suspensions will be introduced, the “layerwise slurry deposition” (LSD) and “laser induced slip casting” (LIS) technology. Both technologies take advantage of the high packing densities reached by conventional slip casting and moreover enable the processing of fines, even nanoparticles.
The determination of residual stress in additively manufactured materials is a challenge, even after decades from the establishment of the basics of residual stress analysis. This is due to the peculiar microstructure of such materials. In fact, researchers have discovered that conventional methods for the determination of RS in materials do not properly work for AM materials. In this tutorial, the basics of RS analysis will be explained, together with the basics of AM manufacturing techniques. The microstructure of the peculiar materials (AM) dealt with here will be elucidated. Successively, the necessary modifications to the conventional approaches to RS analysis will be explained and case studies will be displayed, for the attendant to touch with hands the peculiarities of the approaches. Finally, a few experimental and theoretical tips will be given on dos and don’ts for a correct determination of RS in AM materials.
The experimental determination of residual stress becomes more complicated with increasing complexity of the structures investigated. Unlike the conventional and most of the additive manufacturing (AM) fabrication techniques, laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB) allows the production of complex structures without any additional manufacturing step. However, due to the extremely localized melting and solidification, internal stress-induced deformation and cracks are often observed. In the best case, significant residual stress is retained in the final structures as a footprint of the internal stress during manufacturing.
Here we report solutions to the most prevalent challenges when dealing with the diffraction-based determination of residual stress in AM structures, in particular the choice of the correct diffraction elastic constants. We show that for Nickel-based alloys, the diffraction elastic constants of AM material significantly deviate from their conventional counterparts. Furthermore, measurement strategies to overcome the hurdles appearing when applying diffraction-based techniques to complex-shaped lattice structures are presented: a) proper sample alignment within the beam, b) the proper determination of the residual stress field in a representative part of the structure (i.e., with an engineering meaning). Beyond the principal stress magnitude, the principal direcions of residual stress are discussed for different geometries and scan strategies, as they are relevent for failure criteria.
We show that the RS in the lattice struts can be considered to be uniaxial and to follow the orientation of the strut, while the RS in the lattice knots is more hydrostatic. Additionally, we show that strain measurements in at least seven independent directions are necessary for the correct estimation of the principal stress directions. The measurement directions should be chosen according to the sample geometry and to an informed choice on the possible strain field (i.e., reflecting the scan strategy).
We finally show that if the most prominent direction is not measured, the error in the calculated stress magnitude increases in such a manner that no reliable assessment of RS state can be made.
The general term additive manufacturing (AM) encompasses processes that enable the production of parts in a single manufacturing step. Among these, laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB) is one of the most commonly used to produce metal components. In essence, a laser locally melts powder particles in a powder bed layer-by-layer to incrementally build a part. As a result, this process offers immense manufacturing flexibility and superior geometric design capabilities compared to conventional processes. However, these advantages come at a cost: the localized processing inevitably induces large thermal gradients, resulting in the formation of large thermal stress during manufacturing. In the best case, residual stress remains in the final parts produced as a footprint of this thermal stress. Since residual stress is well known to exacerbate the structural integrity of components, their assessment is important in two respects. First, to optimize process parameter to minimize residual stress magnitudes. Second, to study their effect on the structural integrity of components (e.g., validation of numerical models). Therefore, a reliable experimental assessment of residual stress is an important factor for the successful application of PBF-LB. In this context, diffraction-based techniques allow the non-destructive characterization of the residual stress. In essence, lattice strain is calculated from interplanar distances by application of Braggs law. From the known lattice strain, macroscopic stress can be determined using Hooke’s law. To allow the accurate assessment of the residual stress distribution by such methods, a couple of challenges in regard of the characteristic PBF-LB microstructures need to be overcome.
This presentation highlights some of the challenges regarding the accurate assessment of residual stress in PBF-LB on the example of the Nickel-based alloy Inconel 718. The most significant influencing factors are the use of the correct diffraction elastic constants, the choice of the stress-free reference, and the consideration of the crystallographic texture. Further, it is shown that laboratory X-ray diffraction methods characterizing residual stress at the surface are biased by the inherent surface roughness. Overall, the impact of the characteristic microstructure is most significant for the selection of the correct diffraction elastic constants. In view of the localized melting and solidification, no significant gradients of the stress-free reference are observed, even though the cell-like solidification sub-structure is known to be heterogeneous on the micro-scale.
The damage mechanisms of metallic components produced by process laser powder bed fusion differ significantly from those typically observed in conventionally manufactured variants of the same alloy. This is due to the unique microstructures of additively manufactured materials. Herein, the focus is on the study of the evolution of creep damage in stainless steel 316L specimens produced by laser powder bed fusion. X-ray computed tomography is used to unravel the influence of the process-specific microstructure from the influence of the initial void distribution on creep damage mechanisms. The void distribution of two specimens tested at 600 °C and 650 °C is analyzed before a creep test, after an interruption, and after fracture. The results indicate that the formation of damage is not connected to the initial void distribution. Instead, damage accumulation at grain boundaries resulting from intergranular cracking is observed.
Laser powder bed fusion (PBF-LB/M) of metallic alloys is a layer-wise additive manufacturing process that provides significant scope for more efficient designs of components, benefiting performance and weight, leading to efficiency improvements for various sectors of industry. However, to benefit from these design freedoms, knowledge of the high produced induced residual stress and mechanical property anisotropy associated with the unique microstructures is critical. X-ray and neutron diffraction are considered the benchmark for non-destructive characterization of surface and bulk internal residual stress. The latter, characterized by the high penetration power in most engineering alloys, allows for the use of a diffraction angle close to 90° enabling a near cubic sampling volume to be specified. However, the complex microstructures of columnar growth with inherent crystallographic texture typically produced during PBF-LB/M of metallics present significant challenges to the assumptions typically required for time efficient determination of residual stress. These challenges include the selection of an appropriate set of diffraction elastic constants and a representative lattice plane suitable for residual stress analysis. In this contribution, the selection of a suitable lattice plane family for residual stress analysis is explored. Furthermore, the determination of an appropriate set of diffraction and single-crystal elastic constants depending on the underlying microstructure is addressed.
In-situ loading experiments have been performed at the Swiss Spallation Neutron Source with the main scope to study the deformation behaviour of laser powder bed fused Inconel 718. Cylindrical tensile bars have been subjected to an increasing mechanical load. At pre-defined steps, neutron diffraction data has been collected. After reaching the yield limit, unloads have been performed to study the accumulation of intergranular strain among various lattice plane families.
As industries move for ever faster development and adoption cycles of emerging new technologies in the field of welding, the meticulous and longer-winded approach of the scientific research process can feel harder to integrate. To help bridge this gap and increase the speed, quality, and adoption rate of publicly funded research, the Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) continues to work towards enabling scientists with direct access to necessary software tools and - in the future – highest quality welding research reference data to further foster collaborations.
On the experimental side, the arc welding group at BAM division 9.3 “welding technologies” is continuing to expand and upgrade its capacities of robotic welding systems with integrated state of the art sensor technologies and software solutions. This allows all experiments to be recorded and measured in micro-millimeter accuracy and at sub-millisecond precision, including welding process data, complete spatial geometry and temperature measurements, process video recordings and more. The custom software-based solutions and interfaces allow scaling of the welding systems from large thick plate offshore applications to small additive repair weldments in wind turbine blades to multi-hour continuous weldments in additive manufacturing applications. In addition to the data gathered during the welding process itself, the relevant testing results and materials properties produced at BAM or externally can be integrated seamlessly. This allows detailed traceability of all results back to the actual welding process.
Regardless of the scope and application, complete datasets can be made accessible for research or industry partners in the highest resolution based on the open source WelDX (welding data exchange) file format.
Figure 1. Welding experiment representation including dynamic process data, cross-section imaging and hardness measurements from a single weldx file.
The talk will give an overview of the experimental facilities and workflows as well as current software developments with a focus on research data quality assurance, traceability, and accessibility.
Based on the integration into latest research trends and activities of the “welding technologies” division, the path to publishing reference datasets for arc welding process for various applications and materials is outlined and discussed.
Die metallische additive Fertigung hat in den letzten Jahren in der industriellen Fertigung zunehmend an Bedeutung gewonnen. Hierbei dominiert das Laser-Pulverbettschweißen von Metallen (PBF/LB-M) die Fertigung von kleinformatigen Bauteilen mit hoher Oberflächengüte. Die anspruchsvolle und kostspielige Qualitätssicherung stellt aber weiterhin ein Hindernis für eine breitere und kostengünstigere Anwendung der additiven Fertigung dar. Dies resultiert teilweise aus fehlenden zuverlässigen In-situ-Monitoringsystemen. Belastbarere Prozessüberwachungsdaten würden eine oft erforderliche teure nachgelagerte Prüfung mittels Computertomografie entbehrlich machen. Die Aufzeichnung der thermischen Signaturen des Aufbauprozess mittels Thermografie-Kameras zeigen hier vielversprechende Ergebnisse. Eine Korrelation zu auftretender Porosität, Delaminationen und Deformationen scheinen möglich. Die geringe räumliche Auflösung und die hohen Anschaffungskosten für thermografische Kamerasysteme stehen jedoch einer größeren industriellen Nutzung im Wege.
Ein bereits industriell angewendeter Ansatz zur in-Situ Überwachung des PBF-LB/M Prozesses ist die Optische Tomografie (OT). Hierbei wird die emittierte Prozessstrahlung jeder Bauteilschicht mittels einer hochauflösenden günstigen Kamera für den sichtbaren Wellenlängenbereich in einer Langzeitbelichtung dokumentiert. Die zeitliche Information der emittierten Strahlung geht hierbei verloren. Der gesamte Bauprozess kann jedoch in einem vergleichsweise kleinen Datensatz dokumentiert werden (ein Bild pro Schicht). Eine direkte Korrelation zu auftretenden Defekten gestaltet sich aufgrund der reduzierten thermischen Informationsdichte jedoch schwierig.
In diesem Beitrag soll deshalb das Prinzip der Multispektralen Optischen Tomografie (MOT) vorgestellt und erste Messergebnisse an der Forschungsanlage SAMMIE diskutiert werden. Bei der MOT handelt es sich um eine Übertragung des Prinzips der Quotientenpyrometrie auf das etablierte Verfahren der Optischen Tomografie. Die auftretende Prozessstrahlung wird in mehreren Wellenlängenbereichen ortsaufgelöst über die gesamte Bauplattform erfasst und zeitlich in einer Langzeitbelichtung integriert. Hierbei kommen günstige Kamerasysteme für den sichtbaren Wellenlängenbereich zum Einsatz.
Das erfasste Signal I jedes Bildpixels für jeden separat erfassten Wellenlängenbereich kann als Maß für das zeitliche Integral der spezifischen Ausstrahlung M des Schmelzbades in diesem Wellenlängenbereich gesehen werden. Nach dem Stefan-Boltzmann-Gesetz hängt die abgestrahlte thermische Leistung P eines idealen Schwarzen Körpers in der vierten Potenz von dessen absoluten Temperatur T ab. Wird nur, wie z.B. bei der klassischen OT angewendet, der nahinfrarote Wellenlängenbereich betrachtet, lässt sich mit dem Planck’schen Strahlungsgesetz sogar eine Proportionalität zur siebten Potenz der Temperatur zeigen. Deshalb liegt ein starker Einfluss der maximal auftretenden Oberflächentemperatur Tmax auf das erfasste Messsignal vor.
Das erfasste Signal I wird aber auch durch die spektrale Transmission τ der verwendeten optischen Komponenten des Kamera-Setups, z.B. Filter und Objektive, durch die spektrale Sensitivität S der verwendeten Kamera-Sensoren und den nur sehr schwer zu bestimmenden Emissionsgrad ε der emittierenden (flüssigen) Oberfläche beeinflusst.
In einer ersten Näherung wird das Schmelzbad hier als Graukörper, also ein Körper mit wellenlängenunabhängigem Emissionsgrad ε, betrachtet. Basierend auf dieser Annahme und vermessenen optischen Eigenschaften des verwendeten Systems ist es möglich, eine erste Schätzung der maximalen Oberflächentemperatur Tmax vorzunehmen, selbst ohne genaue Kenntnis des tatsächlichen Emissionsgrades ε. Dies wird durch die Anwendung des Planck‘schen Strahlungsgesetzes und die Quotienten Bildung aus den einzelnen erfassten Signalen I ermöglicht.
Auch bei diesem Verfahren geht die zeitliche Information einer Schicht, also das Aufwärm- und Abkühlverhalten des Schmelzbades, verloren. Zudem sind die Messergebnisse in Hinblick auf tatsächlich gemessene „maximal auftretende Oberflächentemperatur“ mit gebotener Zurückhaltung zu interpretieren. Trotzdem konnten erste Ergebnisse bereits zeigen, dass die MOT-Daten auch in Bereichen mit Doppelbelichtungen (das teilweise notwendige mehrfache Scannen eines Bereiches mittels des Fertigungslasers) im Gegensatz zur klassischen OT erwartbare Maximaltemperaturen liefern. Abbildung 1 zeigt das erfasste Messergebnis für drei aufeinanderfolgende Schichten eines Bauteils einmal mit MOT (links) und einmal mit einfacher OT (rechts). Deutlich zu erkennen ist das durch die doppelte Belichtung hohe Signal bei der OT. Die Daten der MOT zeigen hier keine erhöhten Werte.
Um die ermittelten Temperaturwerte mittels MOT besser einordnen zu können, sind u.a. vergleichende Messungen an Referenzmaterialien geplant. Um die Auswertung der gemessenen Daten zu verbessern, wird zudem der Zeitverlauf des Abkühlens und Aufheizens des Schmelzbades sowie die Einflüsse von Prozessbeiprodukten wie Schmauch und Spritzer näher untersucht. Auch werden Messungen zum Emissionsgrad ε an additiv gefertigten Proben und Metallschmelzen vorgenommen.
Im additiven Fertigungsprozess Laser-Pulverbettschweißen wird Metallpulver lagenweise mittels eines Lasers aufgeschmolzen, um Bauteile zu generieren. Hierbei werden die Eigenschaften der Bauteile zu einem großen Teil durch die im Verlauf des Prozesses vorliegenden Temperaturen bestimmt. Dies beinhaltet unter anderem Materialeigenschaften wie Mikrostruktur, Härte, thermische und elektrische Leitfähigkeiten sowie die Ausbildung von Defekten wie z.B. Anbindungsfehler, Keyhole-Porosität (Gaseinschlüsse) oder auch die Ausbildung von Rissen. Zur Überwachung bzw. Vorhersage dieser Eigenschaften sowie zum Abgleich von Simulationen ist eine orts- und zeitaufgelöste Messung der Temperaturverteilung im Prozess daher von herausragender Bedeutung. In der Industrie kommen optische Verfahren, die auf der Messung der thermischen Strahlung basieren, regelmäßig zum Einsatz. Allerdings dienen diese bislang nur der statistischen Auswertung und der Identifikation von Abweichungen vom Normalprozess. Der quantitativen Auswertung zur Temperaturbestimmung stehen aktuell noch eine Vielzahl von Herausforderungen entgegen. Einerseits stellt der Prozess an sich hohe Anforderungen an die Datenerfassung und -auswertung: der Emissionsgrad verändert sich dynamisch im Prozess und lokale Schmauchbildung sorgt für potenzielle Absorption oder Streuung der thermischen Strahlung oder auch des Fertigungslasers. Weiterhin stellt der hochdynamische Prozess hohe Anforderungen an Orts- und Zeitauflösung der eingesetzten Sensorik (z.B. Kameratechnik). Andererseits erschweren an üblichen kommerziell erhältlichen Fertigungsanlagen praktische Hindernisse wie eine eingeschränkte optische Zugänglichkeit und der fehlende Zugriff auf die Anlagensteuerung sowie fehlende Möglichkeiten der Synchronisation der Messtechnik mit dem Prozess eine eingehende Untersuchung dieser Effekte.
Um letztere Hindernisse zu umgehen, wurde an der BAM die Forschungsanlage SAMMIE (sensor-based additive manufacturing machine) entwickelt. Einerseits bietet das System alle Möglichkeiten, die auch übliche kommerzielle Systeme bieten. Dies beinhaltet die Fertigung ganzer Bauteile (maximale Größe ca. 65mm x 45 mm x 30 mm) und den Einsatz einer Inertgasatmosphäre inkl. gefiltertem Schutzgasstrom. Andererseits bietet es aber auch einen besonders kompakten Bauraum, um die Sensorik möglichst nah an den Prozess führen zu können, sechs optische Fenster zur Prozessbeobachtung aus unterschiedlichen Winkeln und die Möglichkeit der Prozessbeobachtung koaxial zum Fertigungslaser. Des Weiteren besteht eine einfache Austauschbarkeit aller Fenster, Spiegel und Strahlteiler, um den gesamten optischen Pfad der aktuellen Messaufgabe flexibel anzupassen. Die komplette Anlagensteuerung ist eine Eigenentwicklung und bietet daher auch völlige Anpassbarkeit. Eine synchrone und frei konfigurierbare Triggerung diverser Sensoriken und synchrone Datenerfassung bieten maximale Kontrolle über die Sensorsteuerung.
Dieser Beitrag gibt einen Überblick über die Fertigungsanlage SAMMIE. Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse sowie laufende Arbeiten an der Anlage werden in weiteren Beiträgen vorgestellt.
Die additive Fertigung von Metallen hat inzwischen einen Reifegrad erreicht, der einen Einsatz in vielen Industriezweigen ermöglicht oder in greifbare Nähe rückt. Die Vorteile liegen vor allem in der Möglichkeit der Fertigung komplexer Bauteile, die sich konventionell nicht oder nur sehr aufwändig produzieren lassen, sowie in der Fertigung von hochindividualisierten Bauteilen in kleinen Stückzahlen. Allerdings ist der additive Fertigungsprozess hoch komplex und fehleranfällig. Um eine insbesondere für sicherheitsrelevante Bauteile notwendige Qualitätskontrolle zu gewährleisten, ist aktuell aufwändige nachgelagerte ZfP der einzelnen Bauteile notwendig. Alternativen könnten die In-situ-Prozessüberwachung und -prüfung bieten, die aktuell aber noch keinen ausreichenden Entwicklungsstand erreicht haben. Industrielle Fertigungsanlagen bieten keine oder nur geringe Flexibilität und Zugänglichkeit, um umfangreiche Untersuchungen auf diesem Gebiet zu ermöglichen. Daher haben wir an der BAM ein System für den Prozess des selektiven Laserschmelzens (PBF-LB/M) entwickelt, genannt SAMMIE. Es bietet eine komplett offene Systemarchitektur mit voller Kontrolle über den Prozess und flexiblem Zugang zur Baukammer, z.B. optisch sowohl direkt als auch koaxial zum Fertigungslaser. In diesem Beitrag stellen wir das System vor und zeigen erste experimentelle Ergebnisse der In-situ-Überwachung und -prüfung: Thermografische Schmelzbadüberwachung, optische Tomografie und In-situ-Laserthermografie. SAMMIE ermöglicht uns grundlegende Untersuchungen, die helfen werden, die In-situ-Prozessüberwachung und -prüfung weiterzuentwickeln, neue Erkenntnisse über die additive Fertigung zu gewinnen und die Sicherheit und Zuverlässigkeit des Prozesses zu verbessern.
For a deep process understanding of the laser powder bed fusion process (PBF-LB/M), recording of the occurring surface temperatures is of utmost interest and would help to pave the way for reliable process monitoring and quality assurance. A notable number of approaches for in-process monitoring of the PBF-LB/M process focus on the monitoring of thermal process signatures. However, due to the elaborate calibration effort and the lack of knowledge about the occurring spectral directional emissivity, only a few approaches attempt to measure real temperatures. In this study, to gain initial insights into occurring in the PBF-LB/M process, measurements on PBF-LB/M specimens and metal powder specimens were performed for higher temperatures up to T = 1290 °C by means of the emissivity measurement apparatus (EMMA) of the Center for Applied Energy Research (CAE, Wuerzburg, Germany). Also, measurements at ambient temperatures were performed with a suitable measurement setup. Two different materials—stainless steel 316L and aluminum AlSi10Mg—were examined. The investigated wavelength λ ranges from the visible range (λ-VIS = 0.40–0.75 µm) up to the infrared, λ = 20 µm. The influence of the following factors were investigated: azimuth angle φ, specimen temperature TS, surface texture as for PBF-LB/M surfaces with different scan angles α, and powder surfaces with different layer thicknesses t.
Motivated by the aim of developing an additive manufacturing (AM) technology easily integrated in the process chains of the ceramic industry, the LSD-print technology was conceived as a slurry-based variation of binder jetting (BJ).
BJ and other powder bed technologies (such as powder bed fusion) are amongst the most successful AM techniques, especially for metals and polymers, thanks to their high productivity and scalability. The possibility to use commercially available feedstocks (in the form of powders or granules) makes BJ also attractive for ceramic materials. The application of these techniques to most advanced ceramics has however been difficult so far, because of the limitations in depositing homogeneous layers with fine, typically poorly flowable powders.
In this context, the "layerwise slurry deposition" (LSD) was proposed at TU Clausthal (Germany) as a slurry-based deposition of ceramic layers by means of a doctor blade. Combined with layer-by-layer laser sintering of the material, the LSD process was originally demonstrated for the rapid prototyping of silicate ceramics. Due to the difficulties in controlling the microstructure and the defect formation in laser-sintered technical ceramics, the LSD process was later combined with inkjet printing in the LSD-print technology, which has been further developed at BAM (Germany) in the past decade.
The LSD-print technology combines the high speed of inkjet printing, typical of BJ, with the possibility of producing a variety of high-quality ceramics with properties comparable to those achieved by traditional processing. Due to the mechanical stability of the powder bed, the process can also be carried out with continuous layer deposition on a rotating platform, which further increases its productivity.
This presentation will delve into 10 years of research on the LSD-print of a wide variety of technical ceramics including alumina, silicon carbides and dental ceramics. The discussion highlights how a seemingly small process and feedstock modification (from powders to slurries) has great influence on the challenges and potential of this process, which are being addressed on its path to industrialization.
Powder bed technologies are amongst the most successful Additive Manufacturing (AM) techniques. The application of these techniques to most ceramics has been difficult so far, because of the challenges related to the deposition of homogeneous powder layers when using fine powders.
In this context, the "layerwise slurry deposition" (LSD) has been developed as a layer deposition method enabling the use of powder bed AM technologies also for advanced ceramic materials. The layerwise slurry deposition consists of the layer-by-layer deposition of a ceramic slurry by means of a doctor blade, in which the slurry is deposited and dried to achieve a highly packed powder. Not only very fine, submicron powders can be processed with low organics, but also the dense powder bed provides excellent support to the parts built. The LSD technology can be combined with binder jetting to develop the so-called “LSD-print” process. LSD-print combines the high-speed printing of binder jetting with the possibility of producing a variety of high-quality ceramics with properties comparable to traditional processing.
The latest development of this technology shows that it is possible to print ceramic parts in a continuous process by depositing a layer onto a rotating platform, growing a powder bed following a spiral motion. The unique mechanical stability of the layers in LSD-print allows to grow a powder bed several centimeters thick without any lateral support. The continuous layer deposition allows to achieve a productivity more than 10X higher compared to the linear deposition, approaching a build volume of 1 liter/hour.
The Laser-Induced Slip Casting is an additive manufacturing technology specifically developed for ceramic materials using water-based ceramic slurries. The process takes place layer-by-layer in a similar fashion as top-down vat photopolymerization, selectively consolidating each layer by means of a laser energy source positioned on the top. Contrary to vat photopolymerization, in which the consolidation is achieved by selectively cross-linking a ceramic-filled resin, LIS uses water-based slurries with a low amount of organic additives (typically < 5 wt%) as feedstocks.
In LIS, a green body is formed by local evaporation of water which causes the suspension to collapse forming a cast, following a mechanism similar to slip casting. Only a small content of organic additives is needed to effectively disperse the ceramic particles and to increase the green strength.
The technology is very versatile and can be applied to all ceramic systems that can be dispersed in water. One of the main advantages is that even dark materials such as silicon carbide can be processed without issues related to light scattering and absorption.
The presentation will discuss strengths and limitations of LIS compared to other AM technologies and will highlight the latest results for alumina and for silicon carbide ceramics.
The presentation will start with an overview of ceramic additive manufacturing (AM) technologies and will discuss the potential of AM in the field of bioceramics.
The presentation will then focus on two possible use cases of binder jetting technologies.
In the first example, standard powder-based binder jetting is used to manufacture a porous implant design for large scale bone defects. The related challenges in the process chain will be discussed, from powder synthesis to sintering and characterization of the printed part.
In the second example, the LSD-print slurry-based binder jetting technology is presented as a possibility to adapt powder-bed AM to produce dense ceramic parts. The use case will focus on an application in the field of dental ceramics, specifically for the manufacturing of patient individualized single tooth restorations (veneers, crowns) with a high throughput process chain.
Additive manufacturing of metals – and in particular building with laser-based powder bed fusion – is highly flexible and allows high-resolution features and feedstock savings. Meanwhile, though space stations in low Earth orbit are established, a set of visits to the Moon have been performed, and humankind can send out rovers to explore Venus and Mars, none of these milestone missions is equipped with technology to manufacture functional metallic parts or tools in space. In order to advance space exploration to long-term missions beyond low Earth orbit, it will be crucial to develop and employ technology for in-space manufacturing (ISM) and in-situ resource utilisation (ISRU). To use the advantages of laser-based powder bed fusion in these endeavours, the challenge of powder handling in microgravity must be met. Here we present a device capable of building parts using metallic powders in microgravity. This was proven on several sounding rocket flights, on which occasions Zr-based metallic glass parts produced by additive manufacturing in space were built. The findings of this work demonstrate that building parts using powder feedstock, which is more compact to transport into space than wire, is possible in microgravity environments. This thus significantly advances ISRU and ISM and paves the way for future tests in prolonged microgravity settings.
In this presentation, the results of the determination of the diffraction and single-crystal elastic constants of laser powder bed fused Inconel 718 are presented. The analysis is based on high-energy synchrotron diffraction experiments performed at the Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron. It is shown that the characteristic microstructure of laser powder bed fused Inconel 718 impacts the elastic anisotropy and therefore the diffraction and single-crystal elastic constants. Finally, the consequences on the diffraction-based residual stress determination of laser powder bed fused Inconel 718 are discussed.
Manipulating ceramic powder compacts and ceramic suspensions (slurries) within their volume with light requires a minimum transparency of the materials. Compared to polymers and metals, ceramic materials are unique as they offer a wide electronic band gap and thus a wide optical window of transparency. The optical window typically ranges from below 0.3 µm up to 5µm wavelength. Hence, to penetrate with laser light into the volume of a ceramic powder compound its light scattering properties need to be investigated and tailored. In the present study we introduce the physical background and material development strategies to apply two-photon-polymerization (2PP) for the additive manufacture of filigree structures within the volume of ceramic slurries.