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Infrared thermography is a technique that allows to measure the temperatures of objects by analyzing the intensity of the thermal emission without the need of direct contact with very high spatial and temporal resolution. As the temperature is a fundamental factor for the additive manufacturing processes of metals, infrared thermography can provide experimental data that can be used for the validation of simulations and improving the understanding of the processes as well as for in-situ process monitoring for nondestructive evaluation (NDE) for quality control.
In this talk we will provide an overview over the possibilities of state of the art thermographic in-situ monitoring systems for the DED-LB/M and PBF-LB/M processes and the challenges such as phase transitions and unknown emissivity values in respect to the determination of real temperatures. We define the requirements for different camera systems in various configurations and give examples on the selection of appropriate measurement parameters and data acquisition techniques as well as on techniques for data analysis and interpretation. Finally, we compare in-situ monitoring methods against post NDE methods by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of both.
This research was funded by BAM within the Focus Area Materials.
Vor allem in den letzten Jahren ist das Interesse der Industrie an der additiven Fertigung deutlich gestiegen. Die Vorteile dieser Verfahren sind zahlreich und ermöglichen eine ressourcenschonende, kundenorientierte Fertigung von Bauteilen, welche zur stetigen Entwicklung neue Anwendungsbereiche und Werkstoffe führen. Aufgrund der steigenden Anwendungsfälle, nimmt auch der Wunsch nach Betriebssicherheit unabhängig von anschließenden kostenintensiven zerstörenden und zerstörungsfreien Prüfverfahren zu. Zu diesem Zweck werden im Rahmen des von der BAM durchgeführten Themenfeldprojektes „Prozessmonitoring in Additive Manufacturing“ verschiedenste Verfahren auf ihre Tauglichkeit für den in-situ Einsatz bei der Prozessüberwachung in der additiven Fertigung untersucht. Hier werden drei dieser in-situ Verfahren, die Thermografie, die optische Emissionsspektroskopie und die Schallmissionsanalyse für den Einsatz beim Laser-Pulver-Auftragschweißen betrachtet.
Einer der aussichtsreichsten Ansätze, die Qualität und Sicherheit der gefertigten Teile in der metallbasierten additiven Fertigung (AM) zu erhöhen und die Notwendigkeit aufwändiger und zeitintensiver, zerstörender oder zerstörungsfreier Prüfungen (ZfP) nach der Fertigung zu verringern, liegt in dem Einsatz von in-situ Prozessüberwachungstechniken. Viele wichtige Prozessgrößen bei der additiven Fertigung sind thermischer Natur, wie z.B. die Temperatur des Schmelzbades. Aufgrund der Zugänglichkeit zum Werkstück während des Bauprozesses bieten sich optische Verfahren zur Temperaturbestimmung an. Für die Thermografie und Optische Emissionsspektrometrie im IR-Bereich, welche für die in-situ Anwendung prinzipiell als geeignet angesehen werden können, gibt es allerdings noch wenig konkrete praktische Umsetzungen, da die Möglichkeiten und individuellen Grenzen dieser Methoden, angewendet auf AM, noch nicht ausreichend erforscht sind. Aus diesem Grund verfolgt die BAM mit dem Projekt „Process Monitoring of AM“ (ProMoAM) im Themenfeld Material das Ziel, Verfahren des Prozessmonitorings zur in-situ Bewertung der Qualität additiv gefertigter Metallbauteile weiterzuentwickeln.
Im Beitrag wird der Fokus auf eine Versuchsserie gelegt, bei der Aufbau von Probekörpern aus dem austenitischen Edelstahl 316L mittels Laser-Pulver-Auftragschweißen (LPA) durch od. mit Hilfe von IR-Spektrometrie und Thermografie in-situ überwacht wurde. Hierbei stellen u.a. die hohe Bandbreite der zu messenden Temperaturen, die Bestimmung der Emissivität und ihre Änderung bei Phasenübergängen des Metalls große experimentelle Herausforderungen dar, wobei jede Methode individuelle Vor- und Nachteile aufweist, welche verglichen werden.
Due to the rapid thermal cycles involved in additive manufacturing of metals, high internal stresses and peculiar microstructures occur, which influence the parts mechanical properties. To systematically examine their formation, in-process measurements of the temperature are needed. Since the part emissivity is strongly inhomogeneous and rapidly changing in the process, the applicability of thermography for the determination of thermodynamic temperatures is limited. Measuring the thermal radiation in different wavelengths simultaneously, temperature and emissivity can be separated. Here, we present results of a preliminary study using multispectral thermography to obtain real temperatures and emissivities in directed energy deposition (DED) processes.
Additive manufacturing of metals offers the opportunity to build parts with a high degree of complexity without additional costs, opening a new space for design optimization. However, the processes are highly complex and due to the rapid thermal cycles involved, high internal stresses and peculiar microstructures occur, which influence the parts mechanical properties. To systematically examine the formation of internal stresses and the microstructure, in-process spatially resolved measurements of the part temperature are needed. If the emissivity of the inspected part is known, its thermodynamic temperature can be reconstructed by a suited radiometric model. However, in additive manufacturing of metals, the emissivity of the part surface is strongly inhomogeneous and rapidly changing due to variations of, e.g., the degree of oxidation, the material state and temperature. Thus, here, the applicability of thermography in the determination of thermodynamic temperatures is limited. However, measuring the process thermal radiation at different wavelengths simultaneously enables one to separate temperature and emissivity spatially resolved to obtain further insight into the process. Here, we present results of an initial study using multispectral thermography to obtain real temperatures and emissivities in the powderfree LMD process.
Thermography is one on the most promising techniques for in-situ monitoring of metal additive manufacturing processes. Especially in laser powder bed fusion processes, the high process dynamics and the strong focus of the laser beam cause a very complex thermal history within the produced specimens, such as multiple heating cycles within single layer expositions. This complicates data interpretation, e.g., in terms of cooling rates. A quantity that is easily calculated is the time a specific area of the specimen is at a temperature above a chosen threshold value (TOT). Here, we discuss variations occurring in time-over-threshold-maps during manufacturing of an almost defect free cuboid specimen.
Online quality control of security relevant parts manufactured by Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) remains to be a challenge due to the highly complex process conditions. Furthermore, the influence of characteristic scan strategy parameters is not sufficiently clarified yet due to the commonly used method of single-track investigations. In this contribution, this topic is addressed by observing large 316L volume sections using in-situ melt pool monitoring by thermography in high temporal and spatial resolution. In detail, the influence of the scan angle on the melt pool geometry is investigated on. Characteristic melt pool features are extracted from the image data and analyzed using statistical methods data for altering scan angles. The results show significant changes in the melt pool dimensions and temperature distribution over the scan angle rotation. A first explanation approach is presented that connects the observed changes to phenomena of beam attenuation by metal vapor plume.
Rapid cooling rates and steep temperature gradients are characteristic of additively manufactured parts and important factors for the residual stress formation. This study examined the influence of heat accumulation on the distribution of residual stress in two prisms produced by Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) of austenitic stainless steel 316L. The layers of the prisms were exposed using two different border fill scan strategies: one scanned from the centre to the perimeter and the other from the perimeter to the centre. The goal was to reveal the effect of different heat inputs on samples featuring the same solidification shrinkage. Residual stress was characterised in one plane perpendicular to the building direction at the mid height using Neutron and Lab X-ray diffraction. Thermography data obtained during the build process were analysed in order to correlate the cooling rates and apparent surface temperatures with the residual stress results. Optical microscopy and micro computed tomography were used to correlate defect populations with the residual stress distribution. The two scanning strategies led to residual stress distributions that were typical for additively manufactured components: compressive stresses in the bulk and tensile stresses at the surface. However, due to the different heat accumulation, the maximum residual stress levels differed. We concluded that solidification shrinkage plays a major role in determining the shape of the residual stress distribution, while the temperature gradient mechanism appears to determine the magnitude of peak residual stresses.