8.0 Abteilungsleitung und andere
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Impact damages and delaminations in fibre-reinforced composites (FRC) might not be visible at the surface, but could have an influence on the resistance and on the long-term behaviour of the component. Therefore, and especially for safety relevant structures, non-destructive methods are required for the assessment of such damages.
Active thermography methods are suitable to characterize damages after loading using different kind of excitation techniques and various configurations of infrared (IR) camera and heating sources. Here, flash lamps, impulse excitation with infrared radiator and lock-in technique with halogen lamps or widened laser beams are suited. In addition, non-optical sources like sonotrodes (requiring direct contact to the structure) or induction generators (only suited for carbon fibre reinforced polymer (CFRP) structures) could be applied as well. For the investigation of the evolution of the damage during the impact, passive thermography can be applied in-situ. Elastic and plastic deformations alter the temperature of the structure and thus the temperature on the surface.
In this contribution, at first the general principles of quantitative defect characterisation in FRC using active thermography with flash, impulse and lock-in excitation are described. Optical and thermal properties of the FRC material and its anisotropy are considered. Results of phase differences obtained at flat bottom holes with flash and lock-in thermography are compared for qualifying both methods for quantitative defect characterization. Secondly, the damage evolution of CFRP and GFRP structures under impact load and static tensile loading is described. The spatial and temporal evolution of the surface temperature enables us to distinguish matrix cracks or fibre-matrix separation from delaminations between the layers. Afterwards, all results for loading defects, obtained by passive and active thermography, are compared with each other. Fig. 1 and 2 show the difference of passive and flash thermography obtained at impact and tensile loaded CFRP plates, respectively. As one purpose of these investigations is the development of standards within national (DIN) and European (CEN) standardisation bodies, new draft and final standards are presented and further needs are discussed at the end of the presentation.
Optical lock-in thermography is a completely contactless and very sensitive NDT technique. As an optical source of energy, incandescent (i.e. halogen) lamps are most commonly used because they are relatively inexpensive and offer high irradiances at the test site. However, they are strongly restricted by their low modulation bandwidth with a maximum modulation frequency of only about 1 Hz. The use of high-power kilowatt-class laser sources, e.g. diode laser arrays, pushes this constraint beyond 100 Hz, see Fig.1. This allows for the exploration of the near-surface region of metals and layer systems with better and more accurate penetration depth and depth resolution. Moreover, these lasers are virtually free of any additional thermal radiation that could interfere with the “true” thermal response emitted from the heated sample. In turn, they can be easily used in a one-sided test configuration.
Using the one-dimensional solution to the thermal heat diffusion equation together with the absorptance of the material which is illuminated with a harmonically modulated light source, we can calculate the temperature oscillation at the surface of a solid. As a second step, we calculate the corresponding oscillation of the total thermal emission using Stefan-Boltzmann law as a first order approximation and taking into account the emissivity of the material. Within this framework we can calculate the minimal irradiance of a light source necessary to provoke a measurable signal within a thermographic camera at a noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) of 30 mK. In Fig. 2 this relationship is displayed for a wide spectrum of modulation frequencies and for a number of different light sources scaled to the same electrical input power and illumination area. Using this figure, it is now easily possible to analyze the range of materials to be tested using lock-in thermography, since only the materials (dotted lines) below the irradiance-vs-frequency curves (solid lines) are heated in excess of the camera’s NETD. This figure clearly shows that laser sources considerably increase the application range of lock-in thermography, since especially for metals with a high reflectance and high thermal diffusivity a high irradiance is vitally important to allow for lock-in texting.
We present current activities with kilowatt-class high-power laser sources for advanced lock-in thermography and focus on the application of laser arrays that offer a very high irradiation strength over a large sample area beyond the mentioned advantages.
Optical lock-in thermography is a completely contactless and very sensitive NDT technique. As an optical source of energy, incandescent lamps are most commonly used because they are relatively inexpensive and offer high irradiances at the test specimen. However, they are strongly restricted by their low modulation bandwidth with a maximum modulation frequency of only about 1 Hz. The use of high-power kilowatt-class laser sources, e.g. diode laser arrays, pushes this constraint beyond 100 Hz. This allows for the exploration of the near-surface region of metals and layer systems with better and more accurate penetration depth and depth resolution. Moreover, these lasers are virtually free of any additional thermal radiation that could interfere with the “true” thermal response emitted from the heated sample. In turn, they can be easily used in a one-sided test configuration.
We present current activities with kilowatt-class high-power laser sources for advanced lock-in thermography and focus on the application of laser arrays that offer a very high irradiation strength over a large sample area beyond the mentioned advantages.